languages, in which the process seemed to be going on. Among the Australian tribes two," or a pair, made the extent of their numerals. Some other tribes had advanced to count as far as "five" and "ten." The Malayan nation had native numerals extending to a thousand, above which they borrowed from the Sanscrit. The rude and imperfect numerals of some tribes would seem to have been superseded by the more comprehensive ones of more advanced nations, a remarkable example of which was the general prevalence of the Malayan numerals among all the nations of the Malayan and Philippine Archipelagos, among the tribes, whether fair or negro, of the islands of the Pacific, and even among the negroes of Madagascar. The Roman numerals had been adopted, to the supercession of their own, by the Celtic nations. The two hands and the ten fingers seemed to have been the main aids to the formation of the abstractions which Adam Smith considered so subtle. This would account for the numeral scale being sometimes found binary, sometimes quinary, but generally decimal. However great the difficulties of constructing languages, there was no doubt they were conquered by mere savages. Language was even brought to perfection as to structure, and for the expression of ordinary ideas, by men who were but barbarians. The poems of Homer, composed before the invention of letters, were as perfect Greek as any that were ever after written. The Sanscrit language, in all its complexity and perfection of structure, was spoken and written at least three thousand years ago by men who, compared with their posterity, were completely barbarian. The Esquimaux had a language of great complexity and structure. Languages, then, were formed everywhere by rude savages, and time alone seemed to have been sufficient to enable them to elaborate a system perfect for its purpose with every race of man. The vocabulary of the rudest tongue probably embraced not fewer than 10,000 words, every one of which had to be invented. These words, in order to form a coherent system, had often to undergo modifications of form, and some of them, besides their literal meaning, had to receive metaphorical ones. What ages, then, must not have elapsed from the first attempts to assign names to a few familiar objects, to that in which language had attained the completion at which it had arrived, as we find it even among cannibals! Between the completion in question and the discovery of the art of writing, made only here and there, under very favourable conditions as to race and locality, how many additional ages must not have transpired! That discovery implied an advanced civilization, the fruit of very long time. If we considered the introduction of the art of writing among the Jews, for example, to have been coeval with the Pentateuch, this alone would carry us back in the history of language for near 3500 years, according to the usual computation. But at the time at which the Pentateuch was written, the contemporary Egyptians were a far more civilized people than the Jews, and had been long in possession of the art of writing. He thought the conclusion was inevitable that the birth of man was of vast antiquity. He came into the world without language, and in every case had to achieve the arduous and tedious task of constructing speech, which, in the rudest form in which it was now found, it must have taken many thousands of years to accomplish.

On the Antiquity of the Aryan Languages. By R. CULL.

On the Ethnology of Finnmark, in Norway. By L. Da▲, of Christiania. The district of Finnmark was situated at the extreme north of Norway and Sweden. Its population was very scanty, but was also very diversified; there were three great divisions:-the aboriginal Laps; the Norwegians, being immigrants from Norway; and the Fins, from Finland in Russia. The former were chiefly nomade, and the others were almost exclusively fishermen, living on the coast and banks of the rivers. In 1855 the population of Finnmark proper was 15,385 souls, and consisted of 5300 Norwegians, 1425 Nomades, 5786 settled Laps, and 2305 Finlanders. Each of the three nationalities spoke a different tongue. Mr. Freiss, of Norway, had lectured upon the Laps and Fins, and from inquiries conducted under his superintendence a map was constructed, and from this and some statistics which had been given, the author drew conclusions to the effect that the Norwegians and Fins were the more civilized, and that while the Laps were learn1861. 13

ing their languages, the Norwegians and Fins knew nothing of the language of the Laps, and that the connexion between the Laps and the Fins was more intimate than between the Norwegians and the Laps.

New Commercial Route to China.

By HENRY DUCKWORTH, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.

The object of this communication was to give a summary of a project recently placed before the Government and commercial community of this country by Captain Richard Sprye and the writer of this paper.

In his prefatory remarks the author observed that our most recent acquisitions of territory in Burmah had brought us within 250 miles of the Chinese frontier.

There being no direct communication between the two countries, it became a most important question whether it would be possible and profitable to establish

one.

The seven most western and inland provinces of China proper are situated between about 22° and 42° north latitude, and lie far west of the extreme point to which Lord Elgin proceeded up the Yang-tze-kiang.

The chief natural productions of Yun-nan (area, 107,969 square miles; population, 8 millions) are rice, silk, musk, various kinds of drugs, and tea. Gold, copper, lead, cinnabar, and orpiment are abundant; indeed, Yun-nan excels all the other provinces in its mineral wealth.

Kwangsee (area, 78,250 square miles; population, 10 millions) produces abundance of rice, cassia, and valuable furniture-woods. Gold, silver, and quicksilver are the principal metals.

Kweichoo (area, 64,554 square miles; population, 7 millions) yields wheat, rice, musk, tobacco, cassia, and precious timber. Lead, copper, iron, and quicksilver are found in its mountains.

Hoonan (area, 73,000 square miles; population, 33 millions), one of the richest provinces in the empire, produces immense quantities of grain, principally rice. Its teas are said to be remarkably fine. Iron, lead, and coal are abundant; and the mountains produce pine, cassia, and various other kinds of timber.

Sze-chuen (area, 166,800 square miles; population, 30 millions) is the largest and, according to Abbé Huc, the finest province in China. Its fertility is such that, it is said, the produce of a single harvest cannot be consumed in it in ten years. Its principal productions, besides grain, are indigo and various tinctorial plants, fine teas, silk, sugar, grass-cloth fibre (Bohmeria nivea), and many kinds of valuable drugs.

Shensee (population, 14 millions) is too cold for rice and silk; wheat and millet supply their place. Rhubarb, musk, wax, red-lead, coal, and nephrite are the principal articles of exportation.

Kansu (area, with the last, 154,000 square miles; population, 22 millions) produces wheat, barley, millet, and tobacco of very superior quality. A large traffic is carried on between this province and Tartary in hides and coarse woollen

cloths.

The means of reaching these seven rich and densely-populated provinces from the Bay of Bengal is very simple.

Taking Rangoon as the starting-point, it is proposed to connect that port with an emporium in the north-east corner of Pegu, i.e., under the magnificent Karen Hills. From this emporium, which would be almost equidistant from Rangoon and the Chinese frontier, the line of communication would pass through Burmanshan territory to Esmok (or Sze-maou), a border-town of Yun-nan, and a point at which several caravan-roads converge directly from various parts of the province, and indirectly from the whole of the western half of the empire.

In order to take-in chief towns and our military stations, the line would proceed thus:-1st stage, Rangoon to the ancient city of Pegu, the intervening country being almost level; 2nd stage, from Pegu, over flat land across the Sittang to Shoegyen; 3rd, Shoe-gyen, up the left bank of the Sittang and Kyoukkee rivers to Baukatah, a distance of 35 miles; 4th, from Baukatah up the left bank of that river and its tributary, the Peemabhu, to Thayet-peen-keentat, also 35 miles; 5th, across

the watershed between the Sittang and Youngsalen to the Kweestookee branch of the Thaiboot river, and down their right or left banks to the Youngsalen, down and across which to Tzeekameedac; 6th, thence over the watershed between the Youngsalen and the Salween to our frontier-line under the Karen Hills, where we are within reach of all the Chinese and Shan caravans which traverse the country north-west of that point.

Another most important feature in the project is the establishment of an electrotelegraphic communication along the whole route. The line, once brought to Esmok, could be easily carried across country to the Pearl river, and down the lower valley of that stream to Canton and Hongkong, and thence, taking in the principal towns along the coast (Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai), to Pekin.

In like manner, by extending the communication to Niew-chiang, and down the Corea, the open ports of Japan might be brought to the very door of Rangoon, which already possesses telegraphic connexion with Calcutta.

On the Capabilities for Settlement of the Central Parts of British North America. By JAMES HECTOR, M.D., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.

The region noticed by the author extended from Lake Superior to the Pacific Ocean, lying immediately north of the boundary-line of the United States, and was drained principally by the river Saskatchawan. A considerable amount of agitation had been employed in Canada and at home, in order to have this country thrown open for settlement; the whole, with the exception of that portion which fell within British Columbia, being under the direct control of the Hudson's Bay Company for the purposes of a fur-trading monopoly. It had been placed beyond doubt, principally through the labours of several government expeditions, to one of which he was attached, that there existed within these territories extensive areas, with good and varied soil, adapted for agricultural colonization, but which, from their geographical position, were necessarily subject to all the advantages and defects of a temperate continental climate. The winter was long and severe, the spring short and uncertain, and the summer tended to scorch the vegetation. The winter, however, was not more severe than that which was experienced in Canada and elsewhere. Many crops which were readily raised in Canada would not meet with equal success in the Saskatchawan; but all common cereals and green crops had been grown successfully. The depth of the snow was never excessive, while in the richest tracts the natural pasture was so abundant that horses and cattle might be left to obtain their own food during the greater part of the winter; and there was no doubt that sheep might be reared, were it not for the immense packs of wolves which infested the country. These remarks applied more especially to the "Fertile Belt." The Saskatchawan country offered a most desirable field to the settler who was deficient in capital, and who had no desires beyond the easy life and moderate gains of simple agricultural occupations. It was only the difficulty of access to it that prevented its immediate occupation. One route from Hudson's Bay, by a broken land and water carriage, was now almost abandoned. A second route was from Lake Superior to Lake Winnipeg, which had the same disadvantages. The third line of ingress, undoubtedly the natural one, passed through American territory, up the valley of the Mississippi river to the Red River settlement, by way of St. Paul's, Crow Wing, and across the low watershed which there divided the waters of the Mississippi from those flowing to Hudson's Bay. The progress of the adjoining American settlements was then noticed. In the rugged country which lay between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific coast, no doubt all the valleys were filled with rich auriferous deposits; diggings were constantly being discovered in fresh localities. The formation of a line of railway through British Columbia would involve great difficulties. Throughout the Saskatchawan country there were deposits of coal of considerable value, though not to be compared with that which was common in England. Coal of somewhat better quality also occurred at Vancouver's Island; and that colony was a valuable link in a chain of communication with China and the East Indies, by way of a line of route across the North American continent.

On the Relations of the Population in Ireland, as shown by the Statistics of Religious Belief. By the Rev. A. HUME, LL.D., D.C.L.

This paper was in continuation of an analysis which the writer had made of part of the Ecclesiastical Census of Ireland for 1834. It referred to the two counties of Down and Antrim; and the results were published, with curious ethnological maps in illustration of them. Of 135 benefices, some one class of the people rose to more than 50 per cent. in 117 instances; viz., Presbyterians in 70, Roman Catholics in 36, and Established Church in 11.

Looking only to the geographical counties (except in the cases of Dublin, Belfast, and Carrickfergus), and omitting decimals, every 100 people are divided as follows:-Roman Catholics (or Celts) 78, Churchmen (or Normans and English Saxons) 12, Presbyterians (or Scottish Saxons) 9, minor sects of Protestants (mixed) 1.

The Presbyterians are most concentrated, 94 per cent. of their number being in Ulster, 3 in Leinster, 2 in Munster, and 1 in Connaught; indeed, 60 per cent. are situated in Down and Antrim, including Belfast; and if we add Londonderry and Tyrone, 81 per cent., or more than four-fifths, are in those four shires. The Established Church has 58 per cent. of its members in Ulster, 25 in Leinster, 11 in Munster, and 6 in Connaught. It is therefore better distributed. The Roman Catholics are best distributed; viz., Munster, 31; Leinster, 28; Ulster, 22; and Connaught, 19. The great towns, being recruited from the rural population round them, will in time become more Celtic or Roman Catholic, just as Belfast, which was originally English, has become Scotticised by the influx of neighbouring Presbyterians.

The three classes of population attain their highest and lowest relative proportions at different points of the country; and in general the explanation of the facts is simple. The Roman Catholics reach 97.71 in Clare, and shade off in Mayo, Kerry, Roscommon, Galway, &c., not falling below 90 per cent. in sixteen counties. The Established Church is highest in Fermanagh, where it rises to 39 per cent. of the gross population; then in Armagh, 31; softening down in Belfast, Tyrone, Dublin city, and Down county, in none of which do its numbers fall below 20 per cent. Presbyterianism reaches its maximum at Carrickfergus, 59; descending by Antrim, 53; Down, 45; Belfast, 36; and Londonderry, 35; but in twenty-two counties, embracing nearly the whole of three provinces, it does not reach 1 per cent. of the gross population.

In general the numbers representing Churchmen (or English Saxons) and Roman Catholics (or Celts) are the complements of each other, the descending figures in the one case nearly corresponding with the ascending ones in the other. But five or six of the lowest Roman Catholic numbers are baanced, not by Churchmen, but by Presbyterians, as given in the previous paragraph; all the examples lying in the three shires of Down, Antrim, and Londonderry, where the Scottish element is strongest.

Since 1834 the Presbyterian element has diffused itself, though still greatly concentrated. In general it is represented at the new points in the south and west by a preponderance of males; while the instances in which Roman Catholic males exceed the females are remarkably few. Persons of the former class find new homes by the demands of trade and agriculture; persons of the latter class serve to swell the tide of emigration which flows westward, the males being usually the pioneers. These are only a few of the inferences suggested by the figures already given to the public as anticipatory of the general census.

A Letter from Sir Hercules Robinson, Governor of Hongkong, relating to the Journey of Major Sarel, Capt. Blakiston, Dr. Barton, and another, who are endeavouring to pass from China to the North of India. By Sir R. I. MURCHISON, D.C.L., F.R.S.

These travellers ascended the Yang-tse-kiang to 800 miles above Hang-kow, found much coal with limestones and conglomerates in the cliffs forming the banks of that mighty stream, had travelled in their European dresses, and had encountered no great difficulty until they were near the capital of the great province of Sze

chuen (population 15 millions), and in which French Jesuit missionaries have long been settled. The country towards the frontier of Tartary was in such a disturbed state, and for the most part overrun by multitudes of rebels (not the Tae-pings), that the travellers, being unsupported, were obliged to return by the river to Hangkow and thence to Shanghai.

A Letter from the Colonial Office, on the Exploration of N.W. Australia, under Mr. GREGORY.

Sir R. I. Murchison communicated the substance of a letter he had received from his Grace the Duke of Newcastle (Colonial Office), assenting to the recommendations of the Royal Geographical Society, that a sum of money exceeding that which was originally contemplated would be guaranteed to Mr. Frank Gregory to complete his explorations of North-Western Australia. That traveller was to go northwards, turn the north-west corner of the continent, and proceed as far as possible east-wards towards Cambridge Gulf. The colonists of Western Australia who first recommended this exploration had a more limited object in view, wishing merely to extend their feeding-grounds. The proposed exploration was one of the utmost national importance at the present moment; for the land thus explored was where cotton grew as a native plant, and in abundance. It was partly with a view to ascertain some of the cotton-growing capabilities of this neighbourhood that the exploration was about to be undertaken. The feat of M'Douall Stuart in crossing the continent from South Australia to the northern watershed was one which the Royal Geographical Society had recompensed by awarding to him their gold medal.

Remarks on the Proposal to form a Ship Canal between East and West Loch Tarbert, Argyllshire. By JOHN RAMSAY.

The length of the proposed canal from high-water mark on the one side to highwater mark on the other would be 1600 yards. On the voyage between the Clyde and West Highlands the distance saved would be fully sixty miles. Eighty years ago the difficulties and dangers of the navigation had led to the consideration of this proposal, and it was again brought forward in 1846, when the probable expense was estimated at £101,267 188. 9d.

On the Direct Overland Telegraph from Constantinople to Kurrachee.
By Colonel Sir HENRY C. RAWLINSON, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.

In 1858 the Turkish Government undertook to execute, at its own expense, a line of telegraph from Constantinople to Bussorah, which would form an integral portion of the great line connecting India with Europe. It was foreseen that the line would be convenient both for the requirements of the Turkish trade and the purposes of the Turkish Government, and would thus benefit the empire; but the money return for the outlay was to be sought in the tariff established for British messages transmitted along the line towards India. The British Government engaged, as soon as there was a fair prospect of the completion of the Turkish undertaking, to carry on the communication from Bussorah to India at its own expense. Some of the officers originally engaged in the undertaking had retired; but three of Lieut. Holdsworth's employés, Mr. Carthew and the brothers M'Cullum, remained in the country, and, mainly owing to their zeal and skill, the line was now in a working and efficient state the whole way from Constantinople to Bagdad. The Porte had declined to accede to a proposition that Her Majesty's Government should incur half the expenses of the improvements, but had formally engaged to carry out all Col. Kemball's recommendations for giving greater efficiency to the line at his own expense. A submarine cable from Pera across the Bosphorus having been frequently damaged by the anchors of vessels, it was proposed to suspend a wire from the European to the Asiatic side at the narrowest part of the strait a distance of not more than 1000 vards. Precautions had been taken as security against interruption from the Arabs, Kurds, &c., by the line of telegraph being taken from Marden along the chain of the Masius, where there are located a great body of Jacobite Christians. Col. Kemball reported favourably of the pro