called a civil township. A congressional township is simply so much surveyed land, and does not have officers any more than an acre or a square mile. A civil township is the people who have organized a public corporation (see Glossary) for carrying on government. Wherever the word township is used we always mean a civil township unless we are locating land according to the government survey. The word town is often used

instead of the word township, but never in this book excepting in a few quotations from the law.

Organization of a Township. The people of not less than one congressional township nor more than four may have a civil township organized if a majority of the voters petition the county commissioners, who provide for the election of officers. There must be at least twentyfive voters in the township to be organized.

Annual Town Meeting. It was a very ancient custom among our ancestors of Europe for the people of a community to meet and agree upon the method of regulating their local affairs. This is done in many countries today. In Switzerland the people of the canton thus meet for passing laws, and even in Russia, whose government is so stern and autocratic, the people of the mir, or local community, meet and decide upon many affairs of a local nature. It is interesting to note that in Russia each household has one vote, cast by the head of the family,— the widow or the eldest son, if the father is dead.

"The citizens of the several towns of this state, qualified to vote at general elections, shall annually assemble and holl town meetings on the first Tuesday in March."-Pol. Code.

This meeting is called to order between nine and ten o'clock in the morning by the town clerk, or, if he is not present, by any voter. The presiding officer is elected by the voters present and is called the moderator. He is addressed as "Mr. Moderator." The voters at this meeting may decide what regulation shall prevail concerning animals running at large; appoint pound masters; vote money to repair the roads, build bridges, care for the poor, put up sign-boards, etc. They then proceed to elect township officers.

Board of Supervisors. There are three members of this board, elected for three years; one is elected each year. The supervisor who is serving the last year of his term is the chairman of the board.

The duties of the board are very similar to those of the county commissioners,-looking after the property of the township, acting as a board of equalization and assessment for the township, etc. The board must approve the bonds of the other township officers, though the bonds, for safe keeping, are filed with the county clerk of the courts. It levies a poll tax (poll means “head”) on every

man between the ages of 21 and 50, unless he is a pauper or under a guardian. Firemen and militiamen are also exempt from the poll tax. A road tax is levied against all taxable property in the township.

When studying the duties of the county commissioners we noticed the provision for county bridges. The repairing of the bridges within a township is provided for as follows:

"After any bridge has been built by the county under the provisions of this article said bridge shall be under the supervision of the township board and all repairs not exceeding twenty dollars shall be paid by the township or townships in which said bridge is located, and for all repairs exceeding twenty dollars and less than one hundred dollars, the first twenty dollars shall be paid by the township or townships and the balance divided equally between county and township or townships; and all repairs exceeding one hundred dollars shall be paid by the county, but before being allowed by the county, the county commissioner of that district in which said repairs shall be made, shall together with the township board or boards consult with each other and agree upon the necessary repairs to be done."-Pol. Code.

"The town supervisors shall constitute a board of health and within their respective towns shall have and exercise all the powers necessary for the preservation of the public health.”—Pol. Code.

"The board of health may examine into all nuisances, sources of filth and causes of sickness and make such regulations respecting the same as they may judge necessary for the public health and safety of the inhabitants; and every person who shall violate any order or regulation made by any board of health and duly published shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and punished by a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars, or by imprisonment in the county jail not exceeding three months."-Pol. Code.

Township Clerk. His duties are much like those of the county auditor. He is clerk of the board of supervisors, draws warrants on the township treasurer, posts notices of elections, and sends to the county auditor a report of the tax to be levied for township purposes.

Township Treasurer. This officer has charge of money belonging to the township, receiving it from the county treasurer, who collects it with the state, county, and school district taxes.

Township Assessor. The assessor makes out a complete list of all property which is subject to taxation.

He goes to each person in the township, so far as possible, in order to make out this list. When a person tells just what property he possesses he is considered to be under oath (see "perjury" in Glossary).

Justices of the Peace. Two are elected in each township for two years, one being elected each year. A justice of the peace has power to try crimes committed within the county if the punishment is not greater than imprisonment in the county jail for thirty days, or a fine of one hundred dollars, or both such imprisonment and fine. If the crime is a greater one, the justice has power as a "committing magistrate," that is, he may order that the accused person be imprisoned until the higher court meets to try the offense. For most offenses the accused may give bonds as a guarantee of his appearance at court. Lawsuits may be tried in a justice court when the sum in dispute does not exceed one hundred dollars. (See Chapter XV.)

Constables. These are the peace officers of the township. Two are elected for two years, one each year. They also serve legal papers just as the county sheriff does.

Vacancies. Section 1045 of the political code provides:

"When any town fails to elect the proper number of town officers, or whenever any person elected to a town office fails to qualify, or whenever any vacancy happens in any town office from death, resignation, removal from town or other cause, the justices of the peace of the town, together with the board of supervisors, or a majority of them, shall fill the vacancy by appointment by warrant under their hand, and the persons so appointed shall hold their offices until the next annual town meeting and until others are elected and qualified in their places, and shall have the same power and be subject to the same duties and penalties as if they had been duly elected." The provisions of this section also apply to the filling of a vacancy in the board of supervisors or justices of the peace. By "qualifying" for an office is meant taking an oath to support the constitution of the United States, the constitution of the state, and to faithfully perform the duties of the office. Usually a bond must also be given for the faithful accounting of all public money.

Good Roads Law

Old Plan. Before 1907 each township was divided into several road districts and a road overseer was elected for each one. The road tax was "worked out" by farmers. Under this plan each county had from seventy-five to two hundred different road overseers, few of whom had much expert knowledge of road-making or suitable tools with which to work. It was rare to find an honest day's work done, for the custom was to "take it easy" when working out one's road tax. The method was very wasteful and ineffective. With such a system, it is no wonder that "America has poorer roads than any other civilized country on earth." A few crews of good roadmakers with modern graders and other tools can accomplish far more work in building and repairing the roads of a county, do better work, and do it cheaper than under the old plan. In the more progressive portions of the United States the old plan is being done away with, and the result is that they are getting much better roads at no greater cost.

New Plan. The legislature of 1907 made some changes in the law, doing away with road overseers and placing the work in the hands of the township board of supervisors. In 1911 the legislature provided that road taxes levied against property and a road poll tax of two dollars from every man between the ages of 21 and 50 (with a few exceptions) shall be paid and not worked out by the taxpayer. There is a township road tax and also a county road tax. Any road repairs in one place or continuous stretch of road which costs less than five hundred dollars shall be done by contract under the supervision of the township board of supervisors. If the cost is over five hundred dollars the work is done by contract under the supervision of the county commissioners. In coun