Rice is very commonly substituted for a portion of the malt when a very light beer is desired. Glucose or grape sugar substitutes are made in all large glucose factories, and are used most of all for very cheap beer. No beer is ever made without some malt, but the amount of substitution may reach as high as 60 or 70 per cent; that is, a low grade of beer can be made consisting of 30 per cent malt and 70 per cent grape sugar. The grape sugar is used because it requires no action of diastase to prepare it for fermentation, whereas hominy grits or rice must be acted upon by diastase or malt before fermenting, so that more malt is required. It is grape sugar, the solid product of the glucose factories, which is always used in the breweries. The product is not necessarily deleterious to health, but is not pure beer. Pure malt beer has a better flavor, and in the opinion of the witness is not so apt to produce acidity of the stomach or other digestive troubles. In 9 places out of 10 where fermented beverages are sold the purchaser will get a substitute beer, though certain brands of beer are pure. It is almost impossible for the consumer, unless a connoisseur, to tell the difference except by chemical analysis. (19, 21.) Mr. BUSCH, president of the Anheuser-Busch Brewing Association, states that the beer of this company is made entirely of barley malt, hops, yeast, and water, except that some rice is used in order to make a very pale beer of the Bohemian type. This company has never used any corn or glucose or preservatives or coloring matter. Corn does not make a high grade of beer, because of certain oily substances which it contains. They are partly transformed into fusel oil after fermentation. The quantity of fusel oil is not large enough, in Mr. Busch's judgment, to be injurious to health.

Rice is used not to cheapen beer, but to produce a very pale beer of the Bohemian type. It is twice as expensive as barley malt. Mr. Busch is not opposed to the use of corn, though he uses none himself. He does not think that there can be any good evidence that the use of unmalted grains in brewing is unwholesome. (487, 493.)

Dr. PIFFARD, of New York City, believes that beer made from barley malt is in the main a wholesome drink for healthy people and sometimes a useful drink for those who are ill, but he believes very positively that beer made from corn products and from rice is not wholesome, but distinctly injurious. He also believes that new beer and new ale are not wholesome, and that a great deal of the beer offered for sale has not been kept as long as it should be. Up to within a few years he hardly thinks that a glass of what he would regard as wholesome beer, brewed in the State of New York, could be bought in New York City; but during recent years one brewer after another has been making wholesome beer. His impressions with regard to the character of beer are derived from its physiological effects. Dr. Piffard mentions two difficulties in the way of efficient pure-beer legislation: (1) A document issued from one of the Departments of the United States Government rather favored the use of what he considers improper ingredients in beer. (2) The general public, at least in New York City, prefers the improper beer to the proper beer. There are many persons with whom the imported beers do not agree. Dr. Piffard's impression is that they contain preservatives to a considerable extent. (188, 190.)

Mr. ZELTNER, a lager-beer brewer, says that he makes one brand of beer, called old-fashioned beer, of nothing but barley malt and hops, with yeast and water. The use of unmalted grain, such as corn, in partial substitution for malt, gives a beer of lighter color, and perhaps one that does not spoil so readily, but a beer of worse flavor and less nourishing qualities. Such a beer is cheaper, and Mr. Zeltner makes some of it to meet competition; but the all-malt beer is more wholesome. It is not true that a sufficient supply of malt can not be got for the whole product of beer. Plenty of good barley is raised in this country, and more would be raised if it were demanded. It would be better for the farmer to exclude corn from beer, because the farmer gets a better price for barley than for corn. (456-458).

Mr. LIEBMANN says that for 10 or 12 years he has advocated the use of malt and hops only, but the taste of our consumers prefers the rank beer which is produced by the addition of some raw or unmalted grain. Mr. Liebmann admits that it is doubtful whether the addition of unmalted corn can be detected in the finished beer. Rice might, he thinks, be detected. Mr. HUPFEL says that he has experimented by making beer of rice and corn, and rice and grits, and rice and glucose, and has found that nobody "could say which was which out of the four different kinds," the fourth kind being apparently made from malt alone. Mr. BROWN says that an all-malt beer is injured by the excess of albuminoids which it contains. Too much of them tends to make the beer sour. Rice and corn contain practically no albuminoids. (394-396.)

Mr. HART believes that the craving for beer, which exists particularly among the working people, is an inevitable result of the character of their food, and

particularly of the treatment to which wheat is subjected in the process of preparation. The bran of the wheat contains substances which are absolutely essential to the nourishment of the body, and particularly of the brain. Persons who live on such defective food as the common bread of white flour crave the materials of which they have been deprived; and in beer they find them. If people were fed on whole-wheat food the desire for beer would disappear. The brown bread of Germany is what gave the Germans their superiority over the French in the Franco-Prussian war. Beer should be made from malt and hops. Glucose goes to make adipose tissue. This makes a man heavy and handicaps his brain. (362-366.)

Professor CHITTENDEN does not think that unmalted cereals, like rice or corn, partially substituted for malt in beer, are injurious to health. (424.)

Professor HALLBERG does not consider glucose as bad as a substitute for malt in beer as when substituted for sugar, because the sugar from the malt is converted into glucose in the making of beer. All sugar needs to be converted into glucose before it can ferment and form alcohol. He prefers beer made of hops and malt to beer made of glucose, and thinks every other consumer should have the privilege of choosing. All whisky is made from glucose. The starch of the corn is first changed into glucose, which is then fermented and turned into alcohol. (82,83.)

Mr. LIPPE asserts that Canadian malt is the best material for making beer, and that the high tariff, by shutting out Canadian barley, has compelled brewers to resort to worse materials. Mr. BROWN asserts that as good barley is grown in the United States as anywhere in the world. Mr. LIEBMANN says that when the tariff on barley was first enacted that grown on this side of the border was not so good as that from Canada, but that our farmers have improved their product, and brewers can now get as good malt as ever. (393, 394.)

Mr. THOMANN, secretary of the United States Brewers' Association, says that the brewers will not make any fight for the privilege of using glucose. They would object to a law which forbade them to use it and did not restrict the liberty of other manufacturers. Glucose is used by candy makers in much larger proportion than by brewers. Only perhaps 15 per cent of the saccharine matter in beer may be glucose. Mr. Thomann understands that the very best candies contain as large a proportion as this, that the medium grades contain from 40 per cent to 60 per cent, and the lower grades 75 per cent. (354.)

Mr. OEHNE, a brewer, says that a pure malt beer is almost unsalable in this country; it is too strong and heavy. Corn and rice, unmalted, are added to make a beer more suited to the popular taste. Mr. Oehne believes that these materials make a beer quite as wholesome as that from pure malt, and more palatable. There is no reason why glucose also should not be used. (295.)

Mr. FECKER says that corn beer is lighter to the tongue and more palatable than malt beer. The degree of fermentation is not so high; that is the cause of the public preference for it. Malt beer is not necessarily heavier than corn beer, but there is a difference in the degree of fermentation, and consequently a difference in the taste. (299.)

Mr. BROWN, president of the Long Island Brewery, states that his beer is made of hops, malt, grits, and sometimes grape sugar. He distinguishes grape sugar as a solid substance from glucose as a liquid. Mr. Brown uses nothing which he does not consider perfectly healthful and proper for people to drink. He believes that the chief cause of brewers being occasionally blamed for making poor or bad beer is the subjection of the beer to unwholesome conditions in the retailer's hands. If the beer is drawn through filthy pipes it will come out full of bacteria which do not belong to it, and much changed in character. (385,389.)

Mr. LIPPE, president of a brewing company, says that his beer is made entirely from grain and hops. Rice and hominy are used as well as malt; it depends on the market whether he buys one or the other. (380.)

He

Mr. HUPFEL, a brewer, says that his beer is made of hops, malt, and corn. does not use any rice. The corn which he uses is unmalted and is called hominy. It is rather finely broken; it is sifted out of the coarser hominy. (379.)

Mr. HACHEMEISTER says that the brewing company of which he is treasurer uses some corn in its beer, besides hops and malt, but no glucose. He believes corn is used to make the beer lighter. (415.)

Mr. BAUER, brew master of the F. & M. Schaeffer Brewing Company, says that this company's beer is made of hops, malt, and water, with some cerealine, which is a preparation of corn and rice. Very little coloring matter is used. Nothing is added which is not healthful and good for people to drink. In Mr. Bauer's experience in Germany, before he came to this country in 1870, he used hops, malt, water, and a little rice. The methods of brewing in this country are the same as in Germany. (390.)

Mr. KRUESLER says that he uses a little rice in order to make a pale beer. The rice is not over 20 per cent of the material. He does not use corn or glucose or sugar. (377,378.)

Mr. WIGAN, a brewing master, says that he uses grape sugar in ale and glucose in beer. The percentage of glucose would be from 7 to 10. He also uses perhaps 20 or 25 per cent of unmalted corn as an adjunct to the malt. The use of the unmalted grain gives a light, sparkling beer such as the popular taste now demands. Consumers now demand a lighter beer or ale than formerly. (375, 376.)

Mr. EVANS, a brewer of ale and porter, says that his materials are malt and hops and sometimes corn. (416.)

Mr. PABST states that his beer contains no glucose. (312.)

2. Hop substitutes.-Mr. SCHWARTZ says that no substitute for hops is used in this country to his knowledge. When hops are very cheap extracts are made from them to be used when hops are high. This is not a substitution. Lupuline, the meal contained in the hop cone, is also used; but this is a part of the hop itself. It is obtained by tearing open the cones and sifting out the meal. It is impossible to substitute any other substance for hops, because there is no other wholesome bitter which will take their place. (371,374.)

Mr. WYATT declares that he has never met with an instance in which any substitute for hops has been used in this country. He has seen it stated in the newspapers that aloes is used, but he has never been able to trace the stories and he thinks they are purely imaginary. Aloes would be a very undesirable addition to beer. During the last 13 years he has analyzed 20,000 samples of beer, and his analysis has been such that he would certainly have discovered aloes if any had been present; but he has never found any. He has never analyzed any ale or porter, foreign or domestic, in which he found any substance which he considered deleterious to the public health.

Mr. Wyatt does not count hop extract a substitute for hops. It is simply the essential principles of the hops in a small bulk. It is used to a very limited extent. When hops are very cheap, brewers sometimes buy large quantities and have an extract made to be used when hops are dear. (403,411.)

So far as Dr. WILEY knows, no substitutes for hops are used in this country by any reputable brewer, but there is a difference in the character of the hops, which range in price from 77 to 17 cents a pound. (19-21.)

Mr. BAUER, a brew master, who learned his trade in Germany, says that he has never used any substitute for hops, either in Germany or in America. (390.) Mr. WIGAN, a brew master, says that he uses no substitutes for hops. (375.) Mr. LIPPE, president of a brewing company, says that he uses no substitute for hops. (381.)

3. Defective materials.-An affidavit of the managing director of Arthur Guinness, Son & Co., Limited, expresses the opinion that stout brewed from defective materials must suffer in flavor and stability. It states that the malt used by the Guinness Company is carefully selected to exclude any excess of moisture, which might cause an undue formation of lactic acid in the stout, and to exclude insufficiently cured or moldy malt, or grain insufficiently modified in the malting process. (544, 545.)

Mr. WYATT says that the boiling of the wort for from 2 to 3 hours would remove any injurious effects from any musty or deteriorated material which might enter into the beer. The hops would also help. (409.)

Mr. FECKER denies that the need of preservatives is increased by the use of cheap malt or hops. Cheap hops contain less of the hop extract than better ones, and do not give the beer so good a flavor. That is the only difference. (299.)

Mr. OEHNE denies that the use of cheap or unripe or imperfect hops and barley would make it necessary to use a preservative in beer. The only difference that would arise from the use of inferior materials would be that the beer would contain less alcohol. It is true that alcohol is the element which preserves the beer. (297.)

Mr. ZELTNER, a lager-beer brewer, says that one malt may give a larger percentage of extract than another, but an extract of poorer quality. The difference is produced by the method of malting. An honest brewer ought to look for the quality of the extract rather than the amount. (458.)

4. Adulterations.—Mr. PLAUTZ declares that no adulterants are used in the manufacture of beer. One can use a lower grade of material, and so make a cheaper grade of beer; but it is not an adulterated beer. (301.)

Mr. THOMANN, secretary of the United States Brewers' Association, declares that this association has repeatedly placed itself on record as utterly opposed to the use of any adulterations which are injurious to health. The brewers have contributed largely to the Pure Food Congress, and have by resolution approved its action. The brewers are also opposed to any adulterations which lower the

quality of the goods. The brewers do, however, claim the right to choose their own materials, provided they choose materials which are wholesome and not injurious. (351, 352,356.)

Mr. SCHWARTZ says that isinglass, which is composed of fish bladders, is used to settle or clarify the beer. Nothing of it is dissolved. It settles to the bottom and is removed with other suspended matters. (371,372.)

5. Color of beer.-Mr. BUSCH says that he uses no coloring matter in beer, but that the color is determined by the temperature at which the malt is dried. For dark beer malt is prepared at a temperature of about 65 degrees Réaumur; for light beer, at about 45 degrees. (489.)

Mr. LIPPE says that for coloring beer he uses dark malt, or sometimes burnt sugar. (381.)

Mr. SCHWARTZ, a consulting brewer, says that very little coloring matter is used in beer except the colored malt. Sometimes burnt sugar is used, but the quantity is small. (371.)

Mr. WACKENHUTH, a brew master, says that he uses caramel malt and burnt malt for coloring beer. (413.)

B. Process of manufacture.-1. Generally.-Mr. WYATT describes the process of the manufacture of beer and ale. When the beer has been boiled in the kettle and brought to the required gravity or strength, it is sent over a cooler into a large receiving vat, and there mixed with yeast. Yeast is a plant which is propagated in the brewery from year to year as other plants are propagated in the ground. For every pound of yeast which is planted in the beer a crop of 5 pounds of yeast is developed. In the manufacture of ale the yeast rises to the top; in lager beer the yeast settles to the bottom. This difference depends upon a difference of temperature; ale is fermented at a higher temperature than beer. The yeast in the process of growth breaks down the maltose sugar in the solution and decomposes it into practically equal parts of carbonic-acid gas and alcohol. The carbonic-acid gas passes off; the greater part of the alcohol remains in the beer. In the present state of scientific knowledge it is possible to regulate the mashing process so that the resulting beer shall have any desired composition and any desired per cent of alcohol.

The fermentation takes about 10 to 13 days. By that time the beer has lost about 55 per cent of its original gravity; if it originally showed 12 on the scale, it now probably shows 5 or 5. Then the yeast is allowed to settle to the bottom and the fermented beer is taken to the storage cellar, where its temperature is reduced to the point at which bacteria or foreign organisms will not work. This temperature is about 33 or 34 degrees Fahrenheit. Here the beer remains until all the albuminoids have been deposited, and the beer is practically brilliant. The period in the storage cellar is about six weeks. From the storage cellar the beer goes to the chip-cask cellar. There it is treated with a small quantity of fresh beer. In order to impregnate it with carbonic-acid gas it is generally bound under a pressure of 6 to 7 pounds, or about half an atmosphere. The carbonicacid gas is absorbed in direct proportion to the pressure, and half an atmosphere has been found enough to saturate the beer with gas. When the fresh beer has completely fermented, and no further evidence of cloudiness appears, the beer is passed through a filter into the trade package and sent out for sale. The whole process occupies about 24 or 3 months. This is the process used by 95 per cent of the brewers in the United States. (404, 405.)

2. Exclusion of bacteria.-Mr. BROWN, president of the Long Island Brewery, states that Professor Pasteur tried some years ago to make beer that should never spoil, by making it without letting it come in contact with the air. He built a brewery for this purpose. He made what he called a perfect beer, "but it was so perfect that no one would drink it." Mr. Brown says that the peculiar excellence of the beer made in certain places is due to the bacteria which the beer derives from the local air. The excellence of Munich beer is due to the local bacteria. Mr. Brown took the trouble a year ago to get pure yeast from the Bavarian Government. He has since used it exclusively in his brewery. But it has not changed the taste of the beer at all. Mr. LIPPE says that his brewery did the same thing, and with the same result. Both agree that it is the local bacteria, and not any peculiarity of the yeast, that gives the peculiar local flavor. (387.)

Mr. WYATT believes that some very exhaustive experiments have been made in the filtering of the air to which beer is exposed, or in the carrying on of fermentation in a vacuum, in order to exclude bacteria. He would regard such a process as desirable if it could be brought to such a point that relatively unskilled men could handle it. That is almost impossible. At the moment of putting in the bung a small space is exposed, and the germs get in and undo all that has been accomplished. (408.)

3. Aging.-Mr. WYATT, a brewer's chemist, says that there has been much popular prejudice against the sale of what is called immature beer. A mature beer can be nothing else than one which has been properly fermented, and which, consequently, will not rapidly undergo decomposition on change of temperature. The talk of immature beer refers to beer whose temperature has been rapidly reduced by means of an ice machine on removal from the fermenting room, and which has been cleared from impurities by means of filtration, instead of being allowed to cool and settle in the storage room for six weeks. The cooling and the settling are the only changes which take place after the beer has been fermented to the desired point in the fermenting room. The aging of beer adds nothing to its actual value for consumption. The statement that a perfectly mature beer increases its alcohol and decreases its malt extract by long storage is a mistaken statement. In the case of a wine or a stock ale, or any beer which could be kept at a high temperature, Mr. Wyatt would consider the possibility of the oxidation of the alcohol into ether, with a gain in flavor and acceptable qualities. But lager beer is stored in a cold atmosphere, which arrests chemical change. At the same time there are some wild yeasts which act at very low temperatures, and which sometimes get into beer and injure it. This affords an argument against the storing of beer for any considerable time. (405,406.)

Mr. BAUER considers that beer ought not to be stored over 3 months, and that it is just as good after 6 weeks as after a longer time. The sooner the beer is sold the more malt extract and the less alcohol it contains. For export it is probably best that the beer ripen about three months. (392,393.)

4. Pasteurizing.-Mr. WYATT regards the pasteurizing of bottled beer as the most scientific way of preserving it, but not as an economical way. If the bottles are filled too full they break, through the expansion of the liquid by heat.

It is desirable to keep the pasteurizing temperature as low as possible, say 140° F. Some germs resist that temperature, and some beer must consequently be heated to 150° or 155° in order to preserve it. In order to keep down the temperature and still make certain that the beer will keep, a little salicylic acid is put in. Many efforts have been made to pasteurize the beer in casks, but the beer has never been made satisfactory. It is easy to make it sterile, but it is made flat at the same time and acquires an unattractive odor and taste. (407,408.)

Dr. WILEY says that the process of pasteurizing is meant to keep the beer only long enough for home consumption. The temperature is only 140°. The hand can easily be held in water at that heat. This heat is sufficient to kill the yeast ferments, but not to kill the lactic and butyric ferments. If these were destroyed the beer would be rendered flat and unpalatable. (359.)

Mr. BUSCH states that bottled beer for export is pasteurized by the AnheuserBusch Brewing Association by being heated in a water bath, after it is bottled and wired, to a temperature of about 50° Réaumer. (489.)

Mr. BAUER, a brew master, says that he pasteurizes beer, but only for exportation. He bottles beer for the local trade without pasteurizing. In pasteurizing he brings the beer to a heat of 145° to 150°, and sometimes to 160°. (390.)

Mr. KRUESLER says that his bottled beer is pasteurized at a temperature of 140° to 160°. If it is to go to a very hot climate it is heated a second time after cooling. (377.)

Mr. WIGAN says that he pastuerizes beer by heating it to 140°, or 158°, or 160°, according to the variations of climate to which it is to be subjected. (376.)

5. German and American beer.-Mr. LIEBMANN says that on account of the different conditions of the atmosphere in Germany, anything which has to undergo fermentation will stand exposure there for a longer time than in this country. Beer brewed in Germany is longer in maturing and keeps its taste much better than beer brewed here. (394.)

Mr. BUSCH, president of the Anheuser-Busch Brewing Association, asserts that the best American brewers make a better beer than any in Europe, and that Europeans admit this, if Americans do not. One who has drunk American beer for 20 years is in better condition, if he drinks fine beers, than the German beer drinker of 5 years. But he must select what he drinks. There are good beers and bad beers both in Germany and in America. (491, 493.)

6. Cloudiness of beer.-Mr. ZELTNER, a lager-beer brewer, says that some excellent lager beer becomes turbid or cloudy at a low temperature, and becomes bright again when the temperature is raised. The reason seems to be that the albuminoids are congealed when the temperature is lowered and are dissolved again as it rises. Such a beer is likely to be rejected by ordinary people, because it does not appeal to the eye. But the albuminoids, the abundance of which cause the turbid appearance, are the most valuable nourishing constituents of the genuine malt beer. Such beer is far more wholesome to drink than that which is kept bright to the eye with antiseptics. The prejudice against it is

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