men

61,390 horses. Depot troops: 52 battalions, 17 squadrons, 26 companies, 19 batteries; or 1,000 officers, 34,600 men, 9,000 horses, 114 guns. Territorial Army: 130 battalions, 26 squadrons, 312 guns, 3,200 officers, 118,530 men, 11,860 horses. Militia: 35 officers, 1,180 Grand total, 386 battalions, men, 210 horses. 26 companies, 99 squadrons, 1,116 guns, 11,735 officers, 348,100 and 84,460 horses. The total fully trained force, according to the St. Petersburg Gazette, is 509,960. The Military College and Academy train accomplished officers of great intelligence. They were pronounced by General Grant to be among the foremost of the kind in the world. The barracks and gymnasia are of the best type, and every care is paid to the physical development of the men.

MEXICO.

years,

The Mexican army consists in peace time of 3,500 officers, 31,000 men, and 11,000 horses or mules. It was proposed to introduce personal or obligatory service, but the plan has been postponed, and the army is recruited by voluntary engagement of 3, 4 and 5 with special levies drawn by lot. The passage of the forces to a war footing has been defined by law, and provision is made for mobilizing the first and second reserve, including the rural and urban police, the national guard and other forces.

The following is the strength: Regular army, 2,700 officers, 61,000 men; reserves, 1,000 officers, 155,000 men; total, 3,700 officers, 186,000 with 32,000 horses and 12,000 mules. men,

Holland has at present no standing army, but a cadre of officers and non-commissioned officers (establishment about 2,200) for training the forces embodied.

The Landwehr, which has replaced the old Schutterij, received its first contingent recently, and the country has been divided into 48 Landwehr districts. The corresponding battalions cannot, however, be formed before 1909. The Landwehr and Landsturm to which men are to be transferred will have a peace strength of about 20,000, and a volunteer establishment in time of war, the militia to be increased to 12,300, to be permanently embodied, with 5,200 more to be called up for short periods; and the reorganization is being proceeded with. The total armed strength is estimated at 69,000.

The army of the Dutch East Indies numbers about 35,000 officers and men, recruited voluntarily, one-half of the men natives, and a

plan of mobilization for war has recently been adopted.

PORTUGAL

The army was reorganized on October 1, 1899. The peace footing is 62,427, including 33,420 militia. The infantry of the line are 18,000, the cavalry 3,032, the dragoons 1,804, the light troops 1,012, the field artillery 3,375 and the horse artillery 479. The total number of guns is 448. The war footing is 100,264 including 52,675 militia.

A new law was introduced in September, 1895, by which the service is three years with the colors, five with the first reserve and four with the second. There is in addition a colonial army of 9,000. The rules of exemption are most liberal, a sum of money paid to the Government being accepted as an equivalent.

ROUMANIA.

The armed forces of Roumania consist of the Regular Army, the Militia, and the Opoltchénie. In peace time there only exist cadres for the regular army, which is divided into permanent and territorial troops. The period of service for the permanent troops is three years, and for the territorial troops five years for the infantry and four for the calvary; but in this latter force the soldier at first only puts in three months of continuous service; he is then sent to his home and called up, in his turn, for one week each month.

The effective of the army in war is as follows: Infantry: 8 rifle battalions; 34 infantry regiments (102 battalions; altogether 2,250 officers, 126,000 men, and 4,700 horses). Cavalry: 6 Roshiori regiments (24 squadrons, forming an independent division); 11 Caalrashi regiments (44 squadrons); total, 530 officers, 13,200 men, 12,100 horses. Artillery: 12 regiments (75 batteries, 450 guns; 40 ammunition columns; 2 fortress artillery regiments); total, 930 officers, 26,900 men, 22,800 horses. Engineers: 12 sapper companies, 4 telegraph, 4 pontoon, and 4 railway companies: total, 140 officers, 6,200 men, 1,500 horses. Grand total, 2,850 officers, 169,800 men, and 41,400 horses. If to these are added the transport, auxiliary troops, 32 militia regiments, etc., the numbers will amount to 7,500 officers, 314,000 men, and 65,000 horses.

RUSSIA.

The huge Russian army makes continual progress, and its varied composition and littleknown development make it very difficult to describe. It may be said to consist of several armies: the European, the Caucasian, the Turkestan, and the Amur force; the first of these organized like other European armies, and the constitution of the others varying in conformity with local requirements. Moreover, the strength of each varies according to the necessities of the situation, the troops being on the

Of these forces the active army numbers 731,000 in Europe and the Caucasus, and 87,000 in Asiatic Russia. Baron von Tettau, in a volume on the Russian Army (1902), gives the peace strength, including Cossacks and Frontier Guards, as 1,100,000.

It must be understood that in regard to the preceding estimate and in what follows concerning the distribution of the Russian forces, considerable doubt exists. The troops were moved secretly in view of the war with Japan, and very various statements have been made as to the force actually available in the Far East.

An Imperial order of November 12, 1903, gave instructions for the formation of 2 new brigades.

year.

The Cossack forces have a special constitution. Every Cossack becomes liable to serve as soon as he has completed his eighteenth For the first three years, which are looked on as "preparatory," his service is, however, purely local; but for the next twelve years he is considered as belonging to the "front" category. This category consists of three bans, the first of which is formed of men actually serving, and the two others of men who have been granted unlimited leave. The last five years are spent in the Reserve category. There is, however, a still further category, for which no limit of age is fixed: this comprises all able-bodied Cossacks not otherwise classified. These have to supply and maintain their own horses, besides providing their own clothing and equipment. The peace effective of the Cossacks is stated to be 65,930, with 52,400 horses, but it is probable that not more than 54,000 are permanently with the colors. The war strength is given as 182,065, including 4,275 officers, and there are 173,150 horses. This gives a percentage of 13.2 to the male population liable to Cossack service.

In the Russian Empire considerably over a million men annually attain the age for joining the army. In 1902 the number liable to serve was 1,122,000, and 315,832 were embodied in the standing army. Seventy per

cent. of the men so entered are illiterates. About 5,000 enlist annually as volunteers, and 16,000 join the Cossacks. The period of liability to personal service lasts from the twenty-first to the forty-third year of age. Those who join the standing army spend five years with the colors (four in the infantry), thirteen in the reserve, and the remainder in the Opoltchénie, or militia. In some instances, however, the War Minister has power to retain men for a longer period with the colors; whilst, on the other hand, this period is shortened by one, two, three, or four years for those possessing a superior education. The Opoltchénie, which has been developed from a simple militia into a first reserve formation, now embraces two different classes: (1) Men between 21 and 43 years of age, who have never served; (2) men who have completed 5 years' service with the colors and 13 years in the reserve. The ages of the men vary between 39 and 43 years.

The Finnish Military Service Law, whereby the Finnish army has lost the independence guaranteed by treaty, was promulgated on August 1, 1901. The offices of Finnish commander-in-chief and staff have been abolished.

The war strength of the Russian forces consists of about 56,500 officers and 2,855,000 men, including 1,792,000 infantry and 196,000 cavalry. These form the active army of all classes. To these figures must be added the available reserves, estimated at 1,064,000; frontier battalions, 41,000; Cossacks, 142,000. There are besides these the Territorial Reserves, some 2,000,000 men, and the Opoltchénie, 1,300,000, which could be employed in case of emergency. Gen. Redigers, a wellknown authority, estimates the trained reserve to be 2,700,000. It is expected that under new organization the Opoltchénie, or militia, in time of war will form 40 infantry divisions, 640 battalions; 20 regiments of cavalry, 80 squadrons; 80 batteries of artillery, and 20 battalions of sappers; but owing to the vast distances to be covered, and the want of railway accommodations, the mobilization of this great force would be neither easy nor rapid. In regard to the embodiment of the reserve force in the event of war, great advances have been made by the establishment of brigade commands and the organization of reserve brigades.

SERVIA.

The military forces consist of the national army and the militia (Opoltchénie).

The national army is divided into three levies: 1st, men from 20 to 30 years of age, and containing permanent cadres and a reserve; 2nd, men from 31 to 37 years; and 3rd, men from 38 to 45 years, with no constituted cadres in peace time.

The militia consists of men from 17 to 50 years of age not in the national army. No

substitution or buying off is allowed. The annual contingent is usually about 20,500 conscripts, of whom 6,000 are generally unfit for service.

The peace effective is difficult to calculate, because, for economic reasons, it is usual to send down men before their proper date for release. The units are strongest in the spring, and from then gradually dwindle away until a company barely consists of more than 10 or 15 men. The army is a species of semi-militia.

The war effective, according to official tables, the accuracy of which must be accepted with caution, amounts to 8,110 officers, 331,900 men, 420 guns, and 39,070 horses. The number of actual combatants would be about 228,000, but a very large proportion are of the 2d and 3d levies, with little or no training.

SPAIN.

Under the terms of an order of January 29, 1903, the army has been reorganized on the basis of an effective of 80,000 men; the second battalions of the infantry regiments and the fourth squadrons of the cavalry being reduced to skeleton formations. There are in all about 23,000 officers provided for the old establishment, but the supernumeraries are on half-pay, and their places are not being filled. are eight captain-generalcies, but the eight army corps are replaced by divisions, and further reductions are being introduced. The headquarters are respectively: 1st, Madrid; 2nd, Seville; 3rd, Valentia; 4th, Barcelona; 5th, Saragossa; 6th, Burgos; 7th, Valladolid; 8th, Corunna.

There

The following is the constitution, by units, of the army: Infantry, 56 regiments, 20 battalions of Chasseurs, 4 African regiments, 2 regiments in the Balearic Islands, 2 regiments in the Canaries, recruiting cadres, etc. The cavalry, 28 regiments, and 3 squadrons for foreign possessions. Artillery, 13 field, 1 siege and 3 mountain regiments (all with four 6-gun batteries), 14 fortress battalions, 1 central gunnery school, 1 central remount committee, and 4 companies of artificers. The engineer corps consists of 4 regiments of sappers and miners, 1 pontoon regiment, 1 telegraph battalion, 1 railway battalion, 1 topographical brigade, 1 company of artificers, and 8 reserve depots, with 5 separate companies of sappers and miners for the Balearic Islands, etc. recruiting purposes the Peninsula has 116 districts, the Canaries and Balearics have 2, and Ceuta and Melilla have 2. The total armed strength is estimated to be 500,000.

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

For

SWEDEN.-The Swedish army underwent a reorganization in 1901, which is progressive and will have its full effect in 1914. General personal service has been adopted, with short periods with the colors: one year for service in the cavalry and artillery, and eight months for

the infantry. The army will be substantially increased in strength. The 24 existing infantry regiments are to have a third battalion each, and 3 fortress regiments of similar strength are to be raised. Some of the new formations have already been brought into existence.

On a peace footing there are 2,606 officers, 1,797 non-commissioned officers, 6,947 corporals and others, 557 cadets, 7,792 volunteers, and 22,332 men, being a total of 40,031. The artillery are to receive Krupp quick-firing guns, of which the pattern is still under trial in an experimental battery. There are 4 corps of engineers. Steps are also to be taken to increase the body of reserve officers. One great object in the recent change is to give a more homogeneous character to the forces. The plans for mobilization of the reserves have been improved, and a Landsturm is being organized.

NORWAY.-The force now availabe for service beyond the frontier numbers, with officers and men, 25, 109; but the total armed strength is estimated to be 38,000, There is, however, the defect that there is no reserve of the line to fill up the gaps which might arise during a war, without taking men from the militia (Landvaern). Besides the troops of the line there exists the militia or Landvaern for the defense of Norway, in case the troops of the line should be taken over to Sweden.

SWITZERLAND.

The federal forces do not constitute a standing army, the principle being that of a militia, and the liability to serve twelve years in the Elite, twelve in the Landwehr, and six in the Landsturm. During the twelve years in the Elite (ten for the cavalry) the aggregate service is 141 days in the infantry, 146 in the engineers, 160 in the cavalry, and 163 in the artillery.

The total military strength consists of: Elite (20 to 32 years of age): 96 battalions of infantry, 8 battalions of rifles, 24 squadrons of dragoons, 48 field batteries of 6 guns, 2 mountain batteries, 10 position batteries, and 12 companies of light horse. Landwehr (32 to 44 years of age): 96 battalions of infantry, 8 battalions of rifles, 24 squadrons of dragoons, 8 field batteries, and 15 position batteries. An aggregate total, in round numbers, of 200,000 men, of whom 130,000 are in the first 12 classes of the Elite, formed into 4 army corps. In addition, the Landsturm can furnish fully 300,000, giving an armed strength of 500,000, maintained at a cost of about $5,000,000 a year for a total population of 3,500,000.

TURKEY.

The Turkish military forces are organized on the territorial system, the whole empire being divided into seven territorial districts. By the recruiting law all Mussulmans are liable to mili, tary service. Christians and certain sects pay

an exemption tax. The nomad Arabs, although liable to service by law, furnish no recruits, and many Kurds evade service. The conscription therefore falls somewhat heavily on the Osmanlis, or Turks proper.

The men liable to service are divided into(1) Nizam, or regular army, and its reserve; (2) Redif, corresponding to Landwehr; and (3) Mustahfiz, or Landsturm. There are also 660 Ilaveh battalions, mostly skeleton formations, in which men supplementary to the establishments are enrolled. Liability to service until recently commenced at twenty years of age, and lasted for twenty years-i.e., with colors of the Nizam, four years; in the reserve of the Nizam, two years; in the Redif, four years in first class and four years in second class; and in the Mustahfiz, six years. An Iradé issued in November, 1903, increases the

total Nizam service to nine years and the Redif service to nine years, it being estimated that this will add 250,000 men to the army. The cavalry are set down at 55,300; the artillery (174 field and 22 mountain batteries) at 54,720 -1,356 guns; the engineers at 7,400; infantry, 583,200; total, 700,620. The Nizam has 320 battalions, 203 squadrons, and 248 batteries, and the Redif 374 battalions, 666 supplementary battalions (incomplete), and 48 squadrons. An irregular "Hamidieh" cavalry has been raised among the Kurds, and has 266 squadrons.

The total war strength is estimated to be: 46,400 officers, 1,531,600 men, 1,530 guns, and 109,900 horses. The Ottoman army has been trained and reorganized largely by German officers, and is composed of the best fighting material, as the war with Greece proved.

In the Railroad Gazette (New York) for May 30, 1902, there appeared exhaustive tables, compiled from the Archiv für Eisenbahnwesen of Prussia, of the railroads of the world in the year 1900 and in previous years. With the help of these tables the Railroad Gazette, in its issue for June 6, makes the following comparative statements:

The mileage built in each decade has been for the world: Ten years to 1840, 4,772; 1850, 19,198; 1860, 43,160; 1870, 63,255; 1880, 101,081; 1890, 152,179; 1900, 107,421.

The mileage built before 1830, insignificant in amount, is included with the 4,772 miles credited above to the following decade.

Of the total of 491,066 miles completed at the end of the century more than one-half had been built since 1880 and nearly three-fourths since 1870. The total built in the forty years down to 1870 (130.385 miles) was one-seventh less than the construction in the single decade ending with 1890. It is notable, however, that in the last decade of the century 44,758 miles less were built than in the preceding ten years. This is one of the indications that the civilized and productive industrial countries of the world are now generally well equipped with these instruments of transportation. Europe (except Russia) and North America have immediate need of no large additions to their mileage. There is still abundant room for railroads in Asia, Africa and South America, but the slow growth of industries of these continents, two of which are over rather than under populated, but whose population is to a great extent a bar to progress such as Europe and North America have had in the past century, gives no promise of rapid railroad extension.

Nevertheless, the most notable development of the last decade has been the greater activity in Asia and Africa. In Asia, until after 1890, there

was scarcely any railroad except in British India, a very little in Asia Minor, a beginning in Russia and Japan. But the 20,960 miles in Asia in 1890 had become 37,477 miles in 1900, and the 6,113 miles in Africa, 12,501. The additions, considering the size of the continents, are small; but they are only beginnings, and considerable new additions have been made since 1900, chiefly the Siberian Railroad in Asia and the Uganda in Africa. It is probably not generally known that even in this last decade it is India and not Russia which leads in railroad construction in Asia; India had added 6,982 miles (42 per cent) to the 16,781 it had in 1890, while the additions in Asiatic Russia were but 4,622 miles.

In Europe more railroad was built from 1890 to 1900 than in the previous decade, but less than from 1870 to 1880. The increase in the last decade was wholly due to Russia, where it was 10,659 miles, against 4,413 miles in the previous decade. In the rest of Europe 29,700 miles were built from 1880 to 1890, and only 26,418 in the following decade.

The most notable change in the last decade, however, is the decrease in construction in North America, which was so long the great field for railroad construction. With 2,834 miles built in 1840, the increase in mileage for successive decades has been: 18401850, 9.099; 1850-1860, 23,644; 18601870, 22,887; 1870-1880, 45,629; 18801890, 85,766; 1890-1900, 33,856.

Thus the new construction on this continent in the last decade was 60 per cent less than from 1880 to 1890, and even 20 per cent less than from 1870 to 1880. The decrease in the last de

cade was common to Canada and Mexico, as well as to the United

States. It was altogether healthy. But this country and Canada, at least, are richer to-day than they would have been if they had built as much railroad in the last decade as