California's Open-Air Summer School' C LASSES out of doors, beneath ancient pines, over seven thousand feet above the sea; study combined with boating and Alpine excursions in the heart of the high Sierrassuch is the alluring program that is drawing attention to California's open-air summer school. In 1914 the Fresno State Normal School, now the State Teachers College of Fresno, determined upon the interesting project of establishing a summer school at Huntington Lake. The site is sixty-five miles from Fresno, upon the shores of a beautiful body of water eight miles in length and averaging half a mile in width. This lake was created artificially as a part of one of the greatest hydroelectric systems in the United States, its many intricate workings being located throughout a large adjacent area. The artificial character of the lake and the proximity of man's Herculean activities in no way detract from the native grandeur and beauty. The lake lies amid towering mountains, cloaked on all sides by majestic forests. In every direction trails seasonal deer hunter. Tucked away here between the ridges, with tunnels, dams, and lakes, is the stupendous enterprise which supplies a large part of Cali For twelve summers the Sierra Summer School, as it was named, has maintained a precarious existence, depending upon meager and uncertain resources for its income. It was impossible to offer tempting remuneration to noted teachers. Members of the normal school faculty, accepting less than sufficient to meet expenses, gladly volunteered their services, considering the advantages of so unique an outing more than compensation. The result was a small but efficient school offering work of equal value with that of any normal school during hundred students almost an equal refused. its regular semester. During the pioneering era the school succeeding in erecting several substantial buildings, including a social hall, a coöperative store, a laundry and bath house, and several cabins for the faculty. For classrooms, level spots in the virgin forest were considered sufficient and appropriate. To accommodate the students, camping facilities are rented at a nominal rate. Each season has seen a demand for admission that has exceeded the resources of the school. In the summer of 1922, two were enrolled, while number had to be The success of the out-of-doors school has been so pronounced and the future growth so assured, that State school authorities and legislators have gotten behind the project and have promised a substantial subsidy for the near future. It is confidently expected that the coming session of the legislature will take action along that line. But even failing legislative action, the spirit of faculty and student body is such that no abandonment is possible. The holding of classes in the free out-of- Education Through Printing ARNOLD LEVITAS Instructor of Typography and Printing in the Public HERE IS no industrial subject We will assume that eighty minutes. per day is given to each group of students in the printing class. This would allow four different sections to occupy the classroom during the day (consisting of five and one half hours). No more than fifteen pupils should be taken care of in the class at one time. A greater number would be impracticable and detrimental to the best results. It is advisable, under these circumstances, to allow the class to govern itself so far as possible. The ablest of the pupils should be appointed foreman. A sub-foreman may be chosen for each department in the shop-composing-room, press-room, stone, proofroom, and the like-and be held accountable for work and equip trade. This has been done because it ment under his care. Tthe curriculum of the public school has been found that it is not possible to that has been found more useful than printing. Not only does it serve to instil a practical bent into the mind of the boy, but it has also been found to be unusually helpful to him in his general academic studies. The values of the teaching of printing in the public schools may be enumerated as follows: 1. It should eventually lead to a better understanding of printing matters, on the part of the general public, which will be to the advantage of the employing printer, employee, and con sumer. 2. Inasmuch as the teaching of printing and typesetting develops knowledge of English, mathematics, art, and the like, it is in that respect alone a useful element in education. 3. It has been found further that the work in the printing classes tends to give pupils an opportunity for self-expression in the right direction and a convenient and happy outlet for their energies. The educational authorities were at first slow to introduce printing in the schools; but it has taken hold in spite of their timidity. From a rather meager beginning, we now have about two thousand printing classes in the United States and Canada. They are found in every grade of school-elementary, high, vocational—and in the college and university. A number of typographical unions have established printing classes of their own, and the results have shown the usefulness of these classes. The employing printers' organizations of many cities, with the help of the United Typothetæ (the National association), have also organized classes for the teaching of various phases of the printing train the apprentice and develop the jour- The results generally achieved show Several years of experimentation have shown that the best results are to be achieved through the adoption of the practical, or productive, method of teaching printing, rather than through the purely pedagogical, or non-productive, method. For the productive method, the classroom is to be regarded as a printing shop with its commercial spirit and atmosphere. The work done in the class should be put to practical use. The pupils then feel that they are producing something for a purpose, that they are working together for a general result, and that everyone's efforts are necessary for this result. The class may be arranged to follow the administration of a regular printing office and in that way teach the students the production of work on an economic basis and give them some idea of management. The courses of study should consist of subjects which are directly applicable to the running of a printing plant. One third of the time should be devoted to theory, in the form of classroom recitations, and two thirds to practical applications. In order to insure each pupil a proportionate amount of training in each department of the shop, a method of rotation should be adopted, and each student should go through every branch during the term, so that he may become conversant with the various processes. This method should be followed the first two terms of each student's training. During the next two terms some of the pupils should be ready to take charge of a department-assisting the newcomers as the latter acquire their initial training. If the term consist of twenty weeks, it might be arranged to have each student get seven weeks of composition, four weeks of presswork, three weeks of correcting, two weeks of stone-work, two weeks of proofreading, and two weeks of distribution. But this system of rotation should be reduced to only fourteen weeks during the first term— allowing the first six weeks for a thorough drill in the basic elements of the trade, such as learning the case, setting straight matter, and getting acquainted with the equipment. The course of study will consist of practical typography, proofreading, planning and layout, office work, cost-finding and estimating, and lectures on paper, ink, type, and rollers. It is to be divided into four courses-one for each term-taking the elementary work during the first year and continuing with more advanced work the second year. The activities of the school print shop may well focus on the publication of a school paper, to consist of about thirtytwo pages and to appear once a month. Various kinds of commercial work-for school use-may also be printed from time to time. Proverbs and poetry serve (Concluded on page 398), (Concluded from page 396) well, because they lend themselves to artistic treatment, ornamentation, and color. The work on the school paper, however, proves of greatest advantage in the academic culture of the students as well as in their technical and commercial training. Literary contributions may come from any member of the school, but the editorial staff and reporters are to be chosen from among the students in the printing class—those who are mainly responsible for its publication. The work of getting up such a journal stimulates thinking along concrete lines. Students have definite objectives in mind and therefore do their work with enthusiasm and interest. They are able to give expression to a variety of impulses and have the greatest opportunity for all-around intellectual and practical training. This work also brings into play, from the technical point of view, every phase of typographic work and some insight into the journalistic field. As an illustration, we may take the experiment successfully worked out in one of the public schools of New York City, where a school journal has been printed, bound, and published by the students of the printing class for several years. The paper started with eight pages, and within a period of two years grew to sixty pages. In its last issue, fifteen pages were devoted to advertisements, which, together with the revenue from subscriptions, was sufficient to pay all expenses. The printing class, within the last two years, was not only selfsupporting, but had a surplus in its treasury besides. The school paper, in a recent issue introduced an innovation-linoleum engravings. The illustrations used have been the result of drawings made by some of the pupils of the school. These drawings were made on linoleum and then cut out with a sharp knife. The engravings were then mounted on wood and inserted for use with the type-matter in the pages. It may be of interest here to relate the methods used in the production of the school journal-as the experiment is rather unique and has proved a great success educationally and financially. The literary matter and illustrations are almost entirely the work of the children of the school. Only a few editorials and some special articles in each issue are written by the teachers. The paper is divided into several departments Editorials; Happenings; Athletics; The Honor Roll; The Music Room; Literary Work of the Students; Special Articles; Wafted on the Breeze; Wisdom of Mount Hope; Read, Think, and Grin; The Funny Zoo. The editorials are usually written by one or two of the teachers who supervise the publication. Those which are prepared by pupils are edited by those teachers before insertion. In order to get the news of the school for publication in the journal, eight boys are selected from the printing class to act as reporters. Each one of these is assigned to cover about eight classes. These boys go to the classrooms at regular intervals, and in that way manage to learn what is going on. They turn in written reports to the news editor, who is also selected from the printing class. The Honor Roll, showing the names of the best students of the school for the month, is made up by the teachers of the various classes and sent in for insertion. The athletic news is written up by some of the boys and girls who play on the various teams. The music news is reported by some of the students of the reported by some of the students of the music classes, who prepare original music classes, who prepare original stories and articles pertinent to the subject. Students of the higher and lower grades write poems, articles, and stories for the journal. The best of these are accepted and used for the department entitled "Literary Work of the Students." Creditable compositions have appeared from time to time in that department, and it has grown beyond expectations in merit and interest. The humor appearing in the "Waftedon-the-Breeze" columns is contributed by several teachers of the school, the material consisting of the actual happenings in the classroom. Teachers also contribute special articles. The contents of the departments entitled "Wisdom of Mount Hope" and "Read, Think, and Grin" have usually been contributed by outside agencies. They have added the necessary "salt and pepper" to the make-up of the paper. All the copy is prepared and edited by the editorial staff composed of several pupils of the printing class, who act under supervision of the printing teacher. The advertisements are solicited by boys from the printing class, who work under the direction of an advertising manager (also chosen from among these boys). After the text-copy of the various departments has been prepared, it goes to the composing room to be put in type. When each article, story, or poem is set up, it is proved up, read, and corrected. Proofs of the corrected matter are used for the construction of a dummy, a guide for the making up of the pages of the paper. These proofs are pasted up in accordance with prearranged plans, and show the proper place for all matter. This dummy is then used for making up the pages. The advertisements are first properly designed and set; after which they are made up into pages in accordance with the arrangement on the dummy. Proofs of these advertisements are sent to advertisers for approval before they are inserted in the pages of the journal. After pages are made up, they are locked up for press-two pages to each form. When the sheets are printed, the boys fold and insert them in consecutive order, and put the covers on. After insertion, the journals are stitched, and finally trimmed. The paper is placed on sale in the inner yard of the school. It does not take long to dispose of all copies. The circulation is about 1200. The paper goes into the homes of the children where it is read with much interest and enjoyment. The various activities connected with the publication of the paper keep the boys and girls on the alert, and offer them many interests. The pupils of the school are more than glad to avail themselves of the opportunities for literary, mechanical, and commercial expression. Some are interested in the local news; others, in their literary achievements, and those of their schoolmates. The school paper has stimulated a great deal of rivalry in literary composition, poetry, and drawing. It has helped the instructors to get better work from students, and has aroused greater enthusiasm for school life. To the teachers the paper opens an opportunity to sense the atmosphere of the school, and to instil into it the proper spirit. It serves as a vehicle that brings teacher and student together in a bond of mutual advantage. HERE HAS never been a time in the history of the American schools when the question of school finance was as prominent as it is at the present time. Not only is it discussed whenever school men get together but it is a common topic of conversation among laymen as well. The schools need more money today than they have needed at any time in the past. A widened curriculum, more adequate pay for teachers, and better physical facilities all cost money. The following discussion concerns itself with the most vital of all school finance questions, the question of control. Generally speaking, there are two methods of controlling city school finances (1) independent control by the board of education and (2) control in which the municipal government has almost complete authority. The former is generally known as "fiscal independence" and the latter as "fiscal dependence." In fiscally independent school districts the board of education has power to compile and adopt its own budget, levy its own tax, or cause some other authority to levy under its direction, and expend the money as it deems right and proper. In fiscally dependent In fiscally dependent city school districts the board of education must submit its budget estimate to the municipal authorities, who revise and change it as they may desire and make it a part of the city tax budget. School moneys thus raised are kept in the city treasury and paid out through the same channels as other city expenditures. These two types are the extremes. There are many other forms 'Mr. Frasier has been Director of Classification and Statistics in the Public Schools of Denver, Colorado. He takes up his new work at Greeley with the second semester. One group that is almost completely independent is made up of those cities in which the board of education controls its own moneys, but is appointed by the mayor or some other municipal officer. It is evident that such a board cannot be as independent as a board that is elected by the people and responsible is elected by the people and responsible only to the people. Chicago is an example of this type of control. The cities of California, except San Francisco, have school boards that are elected by popular vote but they are not entirely independent, because their budgets must be passed on by the county board of supervisors. The city school districts of Oklahoma are hampered by an excise board made up of seven county officers acting in an ex officio capacity. Rutherford, New Jersey, must refer its school budgets to the annual meeting its school budgets to the annual meeting of the district and the tax rate is passed on by the legally qualified voters. The school budgets of most of the cities in New Jersey are passed on by a board of school estimate which is made up of (1) the mayor, (2) two members of the school board, and (3) two members of the municipal government. The cities of Ohio must send their school budgets to the county budget commission for final adjustment and approval. Rochester, New York, has a peculiar situation in that it has a school board that is elected by popular vote but the ultimate control of finances is located in the city hall. Baltimore, Maryland, is an example of complete fiscal dependence and the city of New York runs it a close second. Should school systems be fiscally independent or dependent? Professional school men are agreed that the schools should be entirely free from municipal interference in fiscal matters. City officials and authorities on city administration are of the unanimous opinion that the schools are a part of the city system and hence should be dealt with, financially, exactly as police and fire departcially, exactly as police and fire departments.3 The problem will never be solved by the opinions of school men or those versed in municipal administration. We must look for our answer in the legal basis of our school system and in the results of the different systems of control. From a legal standpoint the case is clear cut. Those favoring fiscal dependence maintain that the schools are a department of the municipal government and should be treated as other departments are. This group would put the schools completely under the control of the municipal government if they were allowed to dictate the policy. Those favoring fiscal independence for city school systems maintain that education is a State and not a municipal function. The school system is not a branch or department of the city government but a separate and distinct corporate organization. This question has been referred to the courts in almost every State in the Union. A careful study of the decisions of these courts shows that "fiscal independence" is legally right. The decisions declare over and over again that school districts are creations of the State and receive all authority from the State. In no case does a school district receive any authority from the municipal government. It may be interesting in this connection to note that when the city of Buffalo adopted its new charter in 1916, it provided for a board of education and a superintendent of schools to be elected by the city council. These provisions were made null and void by the general laws of the State, because a municipal government cannot assume control over schools. In Homer, Louisiana, the city government levied a tax to support a high school. The State supreme court ruled that a city government could not establish a high school for "A system of education is not a part of municipal regulation, and the power of the corporation to establish a public school cannot be inferred from any power necessary for municipal existence." If education is a function of the city and if the school system received its authority from the municipal government, then the charter of Buffalo would have stood as written and adopted and the city council of Homer, Louisiana, could have supported a high school. The 1919 edition of Ruling Case Law reaches the following conclusion in the matter: "School districts are purely creatures of the State and derive their powers by delegation from the State." |