and to which we therefore refer. The last of the Persian monarchs, of the line of Artaxares, was Isdigertes, or Iezdegerd, who was contemporary with Omar, the second caliph after Mahomet. He was scarcely seated on the throne when he found himself attacked by a powerful army of Saracens under the command of one Sad, who invaded the country through Chaldea. The Persian general made every effort to harass the Arabs on their march; and, having an army superior to them in numbers, employed them continually in skirmishes: but Sad, perceiving that this lingering war would destroy his army, determined to force the enemy to a general engagement; which he at last accomplished with complete success, after a battle that lasted three days and three nights. Thus the capital, and the greatest part of the dominions of Persia, fell into the hands of the Arabs; along with the king's treasures, which were immense; A. D. 643.

After this battle Jezdegerd retired into Chorassan, where he reigned as king, over it and the two provinces of Kerman and Segestan. But, after about nineteen years, the governor of Merou betrayed it to the Turks. Jezdegerd immediately marched against the rebels and their allies, but was defeated; and, having with much difficulty reached the river, while he was bargaining with the ferryman about his fare, a party of the rebel horse came up, and killed him. This was in 652. Jezdegerd left behind him a son named Firouz, and a daughter, Dara. The latter espoused Bostenay, whom the rabbinical writers entitle the head of the captivity; and who, in fact, was the prince of the Jews settled in Chaldea. As for Firouz, he still preserved a little principality; and, when he died, left a daughter named Mah Afrid, who married Walid, the son of the caliph Abdalmalek, by whom she had a son named Yezid, who became caliph, and sovereign of Persia; and who, claiming the title derived from his mother, constantly styled himself the son of Khosrou, king of Persia, the descendant of caliph Maroan, and among whose ancestors on the side of the mother were the Roman emperor and the khacan. Persia continued to be subject to the Arabs till the decline of the Saracen empire; being governed by deputies, entitled sultans, under the grand khalifs. But in process of time the sultans of Persia, Babylon, &c., quarrelled among themselves, and occasioned several revolutions, and fluctuations of power, the consequence of which was the coming in of the Turks. Tangrolopix, their leader, conquered the sultan of Persia in 1030, and assumed the government. He was succeeded by a race of Turkish princes for about 100 years, when the Tartars invaded Persia, drove out the Turks, and a new dynasty of Tartarian princes succeeded: after which it was seized by various usurpers, till the time of Jenghiz Khan, who conquered it, with almost all the rest of Asia.

After the death of Jenghiz Khan, which happened in 1227, Persia and the neighbouring countries were governed by officers appointed by his successors, who reigned at Kerakorom, in the eastern parts of Tartary, till 1253, when it became once more the seat of a considerable empire under Haalen, or Hulaku the Mogul, who,

in 1256, abolished the khalifat, by taking Bagdad After the death of Hulaku his son Abaka succeeded to his extensive dominions; who, in the very beginning of his reign, was invaded by Barkan Khan, of the race of Jagatay, the son of Jenghiz Khan, from Great Bukharia, with an army of 300,000 men; but, happily for Abaka, Barkan died before the armies came to an engagement, upon which the invaders returned to Tartary. In 1264 Armenia and Anatolia were ravaged by the Mamelukes from Egypt, but they were obliged to fly from Abaka; who thus seemed to be established in an empire almost as extensive as that of the ancient Persian kings. But in 1268 his dominions were invaded by Borak Khan, another descendant of Jagatay, with an army of 100,000 men. He quickly reduced the province of Chorassan, and in 1269 advanced as far as Aderbijan, where Abaka had the bulk of his forces. A bloody battle ensued, in which Abaka was victorious, and Borak obliged to fly into Tartary, with the loss of all his baggage, and great part of his army. Abaka died in 1282, after a glorious reign of seventeen years, and was succeeded by his brother Achmed Khan. He was the first of the family of Jenghiz Khan who embraced Mahometanism; but neither he nor his successors appear to have been much versed in the arts of government; for the Persian history, from this period, becomes only an account of insurrections, murders, and rebellions, till the year 1337; when, upon the death of Abusaid, it split to pieces, and was possessed by a great number of petty princes; all of whom were at perpetual war with each other till the time of Timur Beg, or Tamerlane, who once more, about A. D. 1400, reduced them under one jurisdiction.

After the death of Tamerlane Persia continued to be governed by his son Shah Rukh, or Mirza, a wise and valiant prince: but it did not remain in the family above six short reigns: after continual dissensions among themselves, the last of them was defeated and slain in 1472, by Usum Cassan, an Armenian prince. There were five princes of this line; after which the empire was held by a great number of petty tyrants, till the beginning of the sixteenth century, when it was conquered by Shah Ismael Safi, Sofi, or Sophi; whose father was Sheykh Hayder, the nineteenth in a direct line from Ali the son-in-law of Mahomet. When Tamerlane returned from the defeat of Bajazet, the Turkish sultan, he carried with him a great number of captives out of Karamania and Anatolia, intending to put them to death; and with this intent he entered Ardebil, a city of Arderbijan, twenty-five miles east of Taurus, where he continued for some days. At this time lived in that city the Sheykh Sesi, reputed by the inhabitants to be a saint; and as such was much reverenced by them. From the fame of his sanctity, Tamerlane paid him frequent visits; and, when he was about to depart, promised to grant whatever favor he should ask; Sesi requested that he would spare the lives of his captives. Tamerlane granted this request; upon which the Sheykh furnished them with clothes and other necessaries, and sent them home. The people were so much affected with this extraordinary instance of virtue that they

afterwards repaired in great numbers to Sesi, bringing with them considerable presents. Thus the descendants of the Sheykh made a conspicuous figure till 1486, when they were all destroyed by the Turks except Ismael, who fled to Ghilan; where he lived for some time under the protection of the king of that country. There was at that time a vast number of different sects of Mahometans dispersed over Asia; and, among these, a party who followed Hayder, the father of Ismael. Ismael, therefore, finding that Persia was in confusion, and hearing that there was a great number of the Hayderian sect in Karamania, removed thither, and collected 7000 of his party, by whose aid he conquered Shirwan. After this he pursued his conquests; and, as his antagonists never united to oppose him, had conquered the greatest part of Persia, and reduced the city of Bagdad in 1510. But in 1511 he received a great defeat from Selim I., who took Tauris, and would probably have crushed the new Persian empire in its infancy, had he not thought the conquest of Egypt more impor

tant.

MODERN PERSIA. Ismael died in 1523, leaving the crown to his eldest son Thamasp I., a man of very limited abilities, and who was invaded by the Turks on his accession to the throne. However, they were obliged to retreat by an inundation, which overflowed their camp. Thamasp then reduced Georgia to a province of the empire, which had previously been divided among a number of petty princes. The reigns of the succeeding princes afford nothing remarkable till the time of Shah Abbas I., surnamed the Great. He ascended the throne in 1584; and began with declaring war against the Tartars, who had seized the finest part of Chorassan. Having raised a powerful army, he entered that province, where he was met by Abdallah Khan, the chief of the Usbeck Tartars, whom he attacked and defeated. Here he continued three years; and, on leaving Chorassan, fixed the seat of government at Ispahan, where it has continued ever since. His next expedition was against the Turks, from whom he took the city of Tauris, after defeating the garrison; on which most of the other adjacent places submitted. One city only, called Orumi, being strongly situated, resisted all the efforts of Abbas; but was at last taken by the assistance of the Curds, whom he gained over by promising to share the plunder with them. Instead of this, however, he invited their chiefs to dine with him; and, having brought them to a tent, the entrance to which had several turnings, he stationed on the inside two executioners, who cut off the heads of the guests as soon as they entered. After this barbarous piece of treachery, Abbas considerably enlarged his dominions, and repelled two dangerous invasions of the Turks. He attempted also to promote commerce, and civilise his subjects; but stained all his great actions by abominable cruelties. He took the isle of Ormus from the Portuguese, who had kept it since 1507, by the assistance of some English ships in 1622; and died six years after, aged seventy.

The princes who succeeded Abbas were remarkable only for those cruelties and de-.

baucheries which occasioned a revolution in 1716, when Shah Hussein was dethroned by the Afghauns or Pattans; who, being oppressed by the ministers, revolted, under the conduct of one Mereweis. The princes of the Afghaun race enjoyed the sovereignty only sixteen years, when Ashraff, the reigning shah, was dethroned by one of his officers. On this Thamasp, otherwise called Thamas, the only survivor of the family of Abbas, assembling an army, invited into his service Nadir Khan, who had obtained great reputation for his valor and conduct. No sooner had Nadir got the command of the Persian army than he attacked and defeated the usurper Esriff, put him to death, and recovered all the places the Turks and Russians had taken during the rebellion, when prince Thamas seemed to be established on the throne: but Nadir, to whom Thamas had given the name of Thamas Kouli, that is, the Slave of Thamas, thinking his services not sufficiently rewarded, and pretending that the king had a design against his life, conspired against his sovereign, put him to death, and usurped the throne, styling himself Shah Nadir. He afterwards laid siege to Candahar, of which a son of Mereweis had possessed himself. While at this siege, the court of the Great Mogul being distracted with factions, one of the parties invited Shah Nadir to come to their assistance, and betrayed the Mogul into his hands. He thereupon marched to Delhi, the capital of India, summoning all the viceroys and governors of provinces to attend him, and bring with them all the treasures they could raise: those that did not bring as much as he expected he tortured and put to death. Having thus amassed an immense treasure, he returned to Persia, giving the Mogul his liberty on condition of his resigning the provinces on the west side of the Indus to Persia. He afterwards made a conquest of Usbeck Tartary, and plundered Bochara the capital. Then he marched against the Dagistan Tartars; but lost great part of his army in their mountains. He defeated the Turks in several engagements; but, laying siege to Bagdad, was twice compelled to raise it. He proceeded to change the religion of Persia to that of Omar, hanged up the chief priests, put his own son to death, and was guilty of such cruelty that he was at length assassinated by his own relations in 1747.

Upon the death of Shah Nadir a contest ensued among his relations for the crown, which rendered Persia a scene of the most horrible confusion for upwards of forty years. The reader will form some notion of the troubles of this unhappy country from the following series of pretenders to the throne, between the death of Nadir and the accession of Kerim Khan:-Their reigns, or more properly the length of time they respectively governed with their party, were as follows;-1. Adil Shah, nine months. 2. Ibrahim Shah, six months. 3. Shah Rokh Shah, after a variety of revolutions, at length regained the city of Meschid; he was alive in 1787, and above eighty years of age, reigning in Khorasan, under the direction of his son Nussir Ullah Meerza. 4. Suleeman Shah, and 5 Ismael Shah, in about forty days were both cut off, almost as soon as they were elevated. 6. Azad Khan

Afghan, one of Kerim Khan's most formidable rivals and competitors, was subdued by him, brought prisoner to Shirauz, and died there a natural death. 7. Hussun Khan Kejar, another of Kerim Khan's competitors, was besieging Shirauz, when his army suddenly mutinied and deserted him. The mutiny was attributed to their want of pay. A party sent by Kerim Khan took him prisoner; his head was instantly cut off, and presented to Kerim Khan. His family were brought captives to Shirauz; they were well treated, and had their liberty given them soon after, under an obligation not to quit the city. 8. Ali Merdan Khan was killed by a musketshot, as he was walking on the ramparts of Maschid encouraging his men. 9. Kerim Khan Zund, by birth a Curdistan, was a favorite officer of Nadir Shah, and at the time of his death was in the southern provinces. Shirauz and other places had declared for him. After various encounters, he completely subdued all his rivals, and finally established himself ruler of all Persia. He was in power about thirty years; the latter part of which he governed Persia under the appellation of vakeel or regent, for he never would take the title of shah. He made Shirauz the chief city of his residence, in' gratitude for the assistance he had received from its inhabitants and those of the southern provinces. He died in 1779, regretted by all his subjects, who esteemed and honored him as the glory of Persia. When the death of Kerim Khan was announced in that city much confusion arose; twenty-two principal officers of the army, men of high rank, took possession of the citadel, with a resolution to acknowledge Abul Futtah Khan (the eldest son of the late vakeel) as their sovereign, upon which Zikea Khan, a relation of the late vakeel by the mother's side, possessed of immense wealth, enlisted a great part of the army into his pay. Zikea Khan was of the tribe of Zund (or the Lackeries), a man remarkably proud, cruel, and unrelenting. Having assembled a large body of troops, he marched to the citadel, and laid close siege to it for three days; at the expiration of which, finding he could not take it by force, he had recourse to treachery. To each of the principal khans he sent a written paper, by which he swore upon the Koran, that if they would come out and submit to him, not a hair of their heads should be touched, and, they should have their effects secured to them. Upon this a consultation was held by them; and as they could not subsist many days longer, they agreed. to surrender, relying on Zikea's promises. Zikea, in the mean time, gave private orders for the khans to be seized, and brought separately before him as they came out of the citadel. His orders were strictly obeyed, and these deluded men were all massacred in his presence. Zikea Khan's tyranny became soon intolerable, and he was cut off by his own body-guard, when Abul Futtah Khan, who was then in the camp, was proclaimed king by the unanimous voice of the troops, whom he immediately led back to Shirauz. Ón his arrival he was acknowledged as sovereign by all ranks of people, and took quiet possession of the government.

Mahomed Sadick Khan, only brother of the late Kerim Khan, who had during that prince's life filled the high office of beglerbeg of Fars, and had been appointed guardian of his son Abul Futtah Khan, was at this period governor of Bussora, which had been taken by the Persians, previous to the vakeel's death. Upon hearing of his brother's decease he began to form schemes for the destruction of his nephew; but, as it was necessary for him to be on the spot, he withdrew the Persian garrison from Bussora, who were all devoted to his interest; evacuated the place, and marched immediately for Shirauz. The news of Sadick Khan's approach threw the inhabitants of this city into the greatest consternation; some, from his public character, expected he would fulfil the commands of his deceased brother; others expected he would set up for himself, which proved to be the case; for, having entered Shirauz a very few days after, he caused Abul Futtah Khan to be deprived of sight, and put into close confinement. After this Sadick Khan openly assumed the government. As soon as the intelligence reached Ali Murad Khan, who was at Ispahan, he instantly rebelled; deeming himself to have an equal right to the government with Sadick Khan. Persia was thus again involved in all the horrors of a civil war. Ali Murad Khan indeed took possession of Shirauz, assumed the government, and gave to the empire the flattering prospect of being settled under the government of one man; but this prospect was soon obscured by' the power and credit acquired by Akau Mahomed. On the night following Kerim Khan's death this man found means to make his escape from Shirauz, and fled to the northward, where, collecting some troops, he soon made himself master of Mazanderan and Ghilan, and was proclaimed nearly about the time that Ali Murad Khan had taken Shirauz. Ali Murad, hearing of his success, determined to go against him; but, as he was previously proceeding to Ispahan to suppress a rebellion, he fell suddenly from his horse and expired. At this period Jaafar Khan, the eldest and only surviving son of Sadick, was governor of Khums: he deemed this a favorable opportunity to assert his pretensions to the government, and immediately marched with what few troops he had to Ispahan; where, soon after his arrival, he was joined by the greater part of the malcontents who were then in arms. In this situation he remained some time; but, Akau Mahomed coming down upon him with his army, he was obliged to risk his fate in a battle, and, being defeated, fled to Shirauz. Soon after he ventured a second engagement with his opponent; and for this purpose marched with his army towards Ispahan ; the two armies met near Yezdekhast, when a battle ensued; and, Akau Mahomed's superior fortune again prevailing, Jaafer was defeated, and retired to Shirauz, which he quitted on the 25th of June, 1787, and shortly after marched his army to th northward.

Akau, or Aga Mahomet's fortunes finally prevailed; and he transmitted the throne of Persia to his nephew, the present shah, Futtah Ali, who is described as an accomplished prince; his

One of the most prominent geographical features of this empire is the grand Caucasian chain, which some writers consider as the root of all its ranges of mountains. It belongs, however, itself rather to the frontier than the interior, especially of late years, and since the success of the Russian arms in this quarter. Southwards from this chain spread the mountains of Armenia and Koordistan, which connect themselves with Mount Taurus; also frontier and debateable ground, i. e. between the Persian and Turkish empires. From the highest part of them, a great chain, under the name of Elwand or Elbruz, makes a circuit round the southern shore of the Caspian, leaving between itself and that sea a fertile plain. Mount Demavend, its loftiest peak, here rises to upwards of 10,000 feet; and near it is supposed to be that remarkable pass to which the ancients gave the name of the Caspian Gates, which for twenty-eight miles allowed only a narrow road between high rocks for a single chariot. The Elbruz is continued along the southern frontier of Khorassan, and, though there lost sight of, is thought to unite with the mountains of Parapomisus, and through them with the Hindoo Cooash and Himmaleh. Chains of inferior height traverse the provinces of Khusistan and Faristan, on the south.

Nearly the whole empire may be said to be traversed by a table land, composed of successive ranges of mountains, with narrow plains at their bases, some of which exceed 100 miles in length. The distinguishing feature perhaps is the great deserts which occupy all the wide spread tracts. The most noted is that called the Great Salt Desert, extending from the vicinity of Koom and Kashan, to the sea of Durra, termed also the Lake of Zerrah; and from the province of Kerman to that of Mazanderan. Its length is therefore about 400 miles, and its breadth more than 200. This may be said to join the deserts of Kerman and Seistan, which stretch further to the east, and, like those of Arabia, are all .impregnated with nitre. The precise nature of these wastes is scarcely known, but they are interspersed with salt lakes; and in many parts the surface is covered with a crust of brittle earth, or a succession of hills, consisting of particles of the finest red sand, so light as to be almost impalpable, which the violent winds

of the desert often raise into a moving cloud, destructive to all life. Smaller deserts occupy other parts.

Modern Persia is singularly poor in rivers, for the Indus, Oxus, Euphrates, and Tigris, as well as the Heirmund, which feeds the lake of Zerrah, are now all beyond her frontier. None that remain are navigable for above three or four miles. We may mention the Karoon, the Kerah, and the Arras or Araxes, as the principal. Various smaller streams descend from the mountains, but are generally soon lost in the dry sandy plains: some few reach the southern shores of the Caspian. On the banks of these streams, however, are some of the most beautiful and fertile plains of the world.

Persia contains several extensive salt lakes. The largest is that of Urumea, near the city of that name, between the Caspian and the western frontier. Its circumference is computed at 300 miles. The shape of this lake is oval, and the waters very salt and clear, emitting a disagreeable sulphureous smell. Mr. Kinneir did not, however, find them encrusted with salt, as some writers have asserted. It contains numerous islands, one of which forms a peninsula when the water is low, and is about twenty-five miles in circuit, inhabited by wild asses, and deer, and other game. Another of these salt lakes is Baktegan, ten miles south-east of Shiraz, and noted for the purity of its salt. Its shape is long and narrow, and its circuit about seventy-five miles. It is nearly dry in summer, when the people who live on its borders collect the salt from the bottom. It is the final receptacle of the river that passes Ispahan. The great lake of Zerrah is at present chiefly included in the dominions of Cabul, and only touches the eastern confines of Persia. The PERSIAN GULF will be found noticed by us distinctly.

The climate partakes of a variety similar, though arising from very different causes, to that of our own country, and the order of the seasons is very similar to ours. From the end of May to that of September, the heat in the low grounds and sandy deserts of the interior is frequently extreme; but on the sides of the mountains and elevated plains, though the higher peaks are still covered with snow, the summer is mild and agreeable. At Teheran, the present metropolis,

the heat of summer is so intense that the king generally quits the capital, and encamps on the adjacent plains; but the winters, to the north of Shiraz, and in higher latitudes, are often severe. Such is their severity at Teheran and Tabreez, that all communication between these towns and the neighbouring villages is frequently suspended for several weeks. The winds that blow over the hot deserts often raise the temperature of the adjacent districts. At Kashan, the heat has been found to exceed that at the village of Kohrood, about twenty-five miles distant, by 20° of Fahrenheit; a difference, which can only be accounted for by the proximity to the former place of the Great Salt Desert. From a meteorological journal, kept by Dr. Jukes at Bushire, a port in the upper part of the Persian Gulf, in 1807, it appears that in June, July, August, and September, Fahrenheit's thermometer often rose to 96°, and was never lower than 80°. Throughout the whole of October it did not sink below 72°, but sometimes rose above 90°. On the 29th of December, 1808, the thermometer fell to 30°, but during nearly the whole of the month it had ranged from 40° to upwards of 72°. The place where the observations were made was on a peninsula, exposed to the cooling breezes of the sea. In most places the difference between the temperature of the day and night is great; and a cool wind often springs up in the evening which lasts nearly the whole night, and diffuses such a freshness that warm clothing is sometimes necessary. Sir John Malcolm says, "In the year 1810, when encamped on the plain of Kubatoo, in Kurdistan, the water in my tent froze to nearly half an inch thick on the 17th of August. The lat. was 36° N., and Fahrenheit's thermometer, at six A. M., stood at 34°. The transition from heat to cold is sometimes very sudden. Rain seldom falls except in the provinces of Ghilan and Mazanderan. On the whole the air is dry, the atmosphere almost always clear, and the country, perhaps, the most healthy in the east. As so little rain falls, the dews are less copious than in Hindostan.

The soil partakes the diversity of the climate: the centre and south are arid in a high degree, and entirely destitute of trees; while, on the shore of the Caspian, timber is abundant. The well watered plains of Ghilan and Mazanderan yield the sugar-cane in considerable plenty ; but even the grains of the temperate climates can only be raised southward by artificial watering, a process to which the indolence of the Persian farmer does not allow him to apply. A vast extent of the empire is therefore abandoned to pasture, and tenanted by nomade tribes, like those of Tartary and Arabia. This portion has unfortunately acquired a great extension, in consequence of the political calamities and internal feuds to which this country has been long exposed.

Of the most favored districts a traveller above cited remarks: The valleys of the central provinces of Persia abound with all the rarest and most valuable vegetable productions, and might be cultivated to any extent. The pasture grounds of that country are not surpassed by any lands in the world. Trees are seldom found except VOL. XVII.

near towns and villages; but the luxuriance with which they grow, wherever planted, shows that the climate is congenial to them. The orchards of Persia produce all the fruits of the temperate zone, and its wilds abound with flowers that can only be reared by care and cultivation in the gardens of Europe.' The plain of Schiraz is the boast of Persia, and indeed of the eastern world; that of Ispahan is only second to it. The fruit every where may be said to be most excellent, and the gardens are cultivated with the greatest care. The vine flourishes in several provinces. The wine of Schiraz is considered superior to any other in Asia; that produced on the sides of the Caucasian mountains is also highly esteemed. Cotton, indigo, and tobacco, are also raised in various parts. Among the common vegetables are peas, beans, carrots, turnips, and cucumbers: and the potato has been lately introduced. Rhubarb, opium, senna, saffron, assafœtida, and other drugs, are also found.

In the northern provinces the mulberry is so extremely abundant as to render silk the staple produce of the empire. In these provinces considerable traces of the superior culture of former times abound. Throughout the country the husbandman, ruined by war or oppression, has often deserted his fields, and wandering tribes have descended from the mountains to occupy his place. Territories therefore formerly distinguished for fertility are now rendered wholly unfit for culture. The artificial canals, which supplied them with the necessary moisture, have been suffered to dry up: and the salt, with which the soil and waters are every where impregnated, has often accumulated and formed a species of crust on the surface of the ground, so as to render it capable of producing only soda and saline plants. Scarcely any where does the husbandman enjoy a moment's security from cheepaos or the forays of freebooters. Mr. Morier, being attacked by a 'predatory chief, in the plain of Shuster, defeated and carried him prisoner to Ram Hormuz. The governor of that place, however, assured him that he could not with safety take any violent measures against so powerful an individual. He even advised Mr. M. to take advantage of the incident, by engaging this person to conduct him safely through the rest of his journey, on condition of regaining his liberty; and this was found in fact the only safe measure.

Persia is noted both for its horses and dogs: the former, although neither so swift nor so beautiful as those of Arabia, excel them in size and strength. The most valuable are of the Turcoman breed; and a chupper or courier has been known to travel from Teheran to Bushire, a distance of 700 miles, on the same horse, in ten days. Superior mules, asses, and camels, are also used. The mules are small, but well shaped and strong. The camels equal those of Arabia, and are much used in all the eastern and desert part of the country; but the western regions are too mountainous for this animal. Buffaloes are found, together with large flocks of goats and sheep, in the uplands: lions, tigers, and bears, in the forests of Ghezan and Mazanderan ; while beautiful zebras roam wild over many of the plains of the interior. They are extremely diffi

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