uniform. Their domestic implements were of very rude construction. Fire answered them many purposes and gained for them the name of Fireworkers. By it they not only cleared lands, but shaped their log canoes and made their wooden bowls. Some of their arrows were of elegant construction and tipped with copper, and when shot with power would pass through the body of a deer as certainly as the bullet from the rifle. The more common arrows were tipped with flint, as well as their spears, and required no little patience and skill in their construction. When they came to obtain guns from the Dutch they were remarkably expert with them. Their money consisted of white and black zewant (wampum),' which was "nothing more nor less than the inside little pillars of the conch shells" which the sea cast up twice a year. These pillars they polished smooth, drilled a hole through the centre, reduced them to a certain size, and strung them on threads. Gold, silver or copper coins they had none. Their standards of value were the hand or fathom of wampum, and the denotas or bags which they made themselves for measuring and preserving corn. Such was their currency and such their only commercial transactions. To obtain wampum they made war and took captives for whom they demanded ransom, or made the weaker tribes tributaries to the stronger. 1 1 There were two kinds of wampum in early use by the Indians, as a standard of value, the purple or black and the white. The purple was made from the interior portions of the venus mercenaria, or common conch. The white was wrought out of the pillar of the periwinkle. Each kind was converted into a kind of bead, by being rounded and perforated, so as to admit of being strung on a fibre of deer's sinew. This was replaced after the discovery, by linen thread. The article was highly prized as an ornament, and as such constituted an object of traffic between the sea coast and the interior tribes. It was worn around the neck; also as an edging for certain pieces of their garments; and when these strings were united, they formed the broad wampum belts by which solemn public transactions were commemorated. As a substitute for gold and silver coin, its price was fixed by law. Three purple beads of wampum, or six of white, were equal to a stuyver among the Dutch, or a penny among the English. Some variations, however, existed in its value, according to time and place. A single string of wampum of one fathom, ruled at five shillings in New England, and is known in New Netherland to have reached as high as four guilders, or one dollar and sixty-six cents. The old wampum was made by hand and was an exceedingly rude article. After the discovery, the Dutch introduced the lathe in its manufacture, polished and perforated it with exactness, and soon had the monopoly of the trade. The principal place of its manufacture was at Hackensak, in New Jersey. The principal deposit of sea-shells was Long Island, where the extensive shell banks left by the Indians, in which it is difficult to find a whole shell, show the immense quantities that were manufactured. They were not skilled in the practice of medicines, notwithstanding the general belief on that subject. They knew how to cure wounds and hurts, and treated simple diseases successfully. Their general health was due more to their habits than to a knowledge of remedies. Their principal medical treatment was the sweating bath. These were literally earthen ovens, into which the patient crept, and around which heated stones were placed to raise the temperature. When the patient had remained under perspiration for a certain time he was taken out and immersed suddenly in cold water, a process which served to cure or certainly cause death. The oil which they obtained from beavers was used in many forms and for many purposes; among others for dizziness, for trembling, for the rheumatism, for lameness, for apoplexy, for toothache, for earache, for weak eyes, for gout, and for almost all ills. The Dutch took to this remedy and attached to it great value. As the term is generally understood, they had no religion, but in its place a rude system in which they looked Through nature up to nature's God." Good and evil spirits they recognized, and to them appealed in sacrifice and fires. Their minister or priest was called kitzinaeka. It was his duty to visit the sick and exorcise the evil spirits; or, failing, to see the usual rites for the dead performed. He had no home of his own, but lodged were it pleased him, or where he last officiated; was not permitted to eat any food prepared by a married woman, but that only which was cooked by a maiden or an old woman, and altogether lived "like a Capuchin." To the sun, moon and stars they paid particular attention. The first moon following that at the end of February they greatly honored. They watched its coming and greeted its advent with a festival, at which they collected from all quarters and reveled " in their way with wild game or fish," and drank clear river water to their fill. year; this moon the harbinger of spring. I This was their new The harvest moon, or the new moon in August, they also honored with a feast, in 1 1 Wassenaar, Documentary History of New York, 111, 28. acknowledgment of the product of their fields and their success in the chase. They fully recognized the existence of God, who dwelt beyond the stars, and in a life immortal expected to renew the associations of this life. But to them God had less to do with the world than did the devil, who was the principal subject of their fears, and the source of their earthly hopes. No expeditions of hunting, fishing or war were undertaken unless the devil was first consulted, and to him they offered the first fruits of the chase, or of victory. "On such occasions," says one of the early writers, "conjurors act a wonderful part. These tumble, with strange contortions, head over heels, beat themselves, leap, with a hideous noise, through and around a large fire. Finally they set up a tremendous caterwauling, when the devil, as they say, appears in the shape of a ravenous or harmless animal; the first betokens something bad, the other good; both give information respecting coming events, but obscurely, which they attribute to their own ignorance, not understanding the devil's right meaning when matters turn out differently." For the spiritual they cared nothing; but directed Devil Worship. The belief of Maikans regarding the separation of the soul, is, that it goes up westward on leaving the body. There it is met with great rejoicing by the others who died previously; there they wear black otter or bear skins, which among them are signs of gladness. They have no desire to be with them.-Wassenaar. 2 This dance of the Indians was called kinte-kaying. It was observed on the their study principally to the physical, "closely observing the seasons. Their women were the most experienced stargazers, scarce one of whom could not name them all, give the time of their rising and setting, their position, etc., in language of their own. Taurus they described as the horned head of a big wild animal inhabiting the distant country, but not theirs; that when it rose in a certain part of the heavens, then it was the season for planting. The firmament was to them an open book wherein they read the laws for their physical well-being, the dial plate by which they marked their years. They were not without government and laws, although both partook of the nomadic state. They had chief and subordinate rulers, and general as well as local councils. Their sachem was their local ruler and representative. Their general councils were composed of the sachems of different families or clans. But these councils assembled only in case of war, or other matters requiring concerted action. In all other respects the tribes or clans acted independently, and declared war and made peace without reference to their neighbors, unless the contest was such that assistance was desirable, in which case invitations to alliance were sent out by messengers. All obligations acquired their force from the acceptance of presents. In making agreements or sending messages they took as many little sticks as there were conditions or parties in their proposals.' If the contracting parties agreed on all, each party, at the conclusion, laid his presents at the feet of the other. If the presents be mutually accepted, the negotiation is firmly concluded, but if not, no further proceedings were had unless the applicant changed the conditions and the presents. On occasions of importance, a general assembly was held at the house of the chief The eve of engaging in expeditions of war or 1 As to the information which you observe I formerly transmitted to the governor of New York, concerning the belt and fifteen bloody sticks sent by the Missiosagaes, the like is very common, and the Indians use sticks as well to express the alliance of castles as the number of individuals in a party. These sticks are generally about six inches in length and very slender, and painted red if the subject is war, but, without any peculiarity as to shape.-Documentary History of New York, IV, 437. sachem in order that a full explanation might be made. At these assemblies the will of the sachem was supreme, for although permitting full debate, mutiny was punished by death. Lands held by them were obtained by conceded original occupation or by conquest. If conquered, original right ceased and vested in the conquerors; if reconquered, the title returned to its original owners. This rule they applied also to the sale of lands to the Dutch. As often as they sold to the latter and subsequently drove off the settlers, so often was repurchase necessary, and, if it was not made, cause of grievance and future war remained. Some respect was paid to the rights of property, and whenever it was stolen, it was ordered returned.1 Although the reputation attaches that they were a "thieving set," yet the fact is that in almost every stated case the Dutch were the aggressors, the Indians only making reprisals for that of which they had been despoiled. Rank was known among them; nobles, who seldom married below their rank, as well as a commonalty. These conditions were hereditary, for although one of the commonalty might rise to prominence, the sachemship descended as long as any one was found fit to rule, and regents frequently governed in the name of a minor. The oldest or first of a household or family represented it “with or unto the chief of the nation." Military distinction was conferred by merit without regard to families or birth. The lowest might become a chief, but the rank died with its possessor, unless his posterity followed in his footsteps, in which case his titles were transmitted. Those of hereditary rank, however, were not esteemed, unless they were distinguished for activity, bravery and understanding, and such they honored greatly. Their armies, or warriors, were composed of all their young men, among whom were even boys of fifteen, and were not without some of the forms of organization and discipline known to civilized nations. Each clan or canton had its war chiefs, "Notwithstanding misdemeanors are not punished, wicked acts are of rare ocStolen property, whenever discovered, is ordered by the chief to be If any one commit that offense currence. restored (stealing) too often, he is stripped bare of his goods."- Documentary History, IV, 129; Wassenaar, Ib., 111, 44. "Though this people do not make such a distinction between man and man as |