anus. In 392, they made their last appearance in history in union with the Franks. According to Cæsar, their territory was divided into 100 districts, each of which was obliged to send annually 1000 men into the field, whose place was supplied the following year by those who had before remained at home to cultivate the ground. Their food was milk, cheese and game; their dress, the skins of animals. Their limited princes, who governed in connexion with a diet, annually distributed the lands among the families. (See Germania.)

CATULLUS, Caius Valerius, a famous Roman poet, born, B. C. 86, at Verona (according to some, at Sirmium, a small town on a peninsula of lake Benacus, now lago di Garda), of rich and respectable parents, went, in his youth, to Rome, where his accomplishments soon won him the favor of those who adorned that splendid era. He was the friend of Cicero, of Plancus, Cinna, and Cornelius Nepos; to the last he subsequently dedicated the collection of his poems. This collection is not of great extent, but shows what he was capable of doing in several kinds of poetry, had he preferred a steady course of study to pleasure and travelling. Probably a part of his poems have not come down to us. Of the merit of his productions, there has been but one opinion among the ancients as well as moderns. Tibullus and Ovid eulogize him; and Martial, in one of his epigrams, grants to him alone a superiority over himself. In sportive composition and in epigrams, when he keeps within the proper limits of that species of poetry, he is a model. He succeeded, also, in heroic verse, as in his beautiful episode of Ariadne, which appears to have inspired the poet who afterwards sung of Dido. He was the first of the Romans who successfully imitated the Greek lyric poetry. The four odes of his that remain to us make us feel a lively regret for the loss of the others. A weighty objection, however, against most of his writings, is their licentiousness and indelicacy. The common opinion is, that he died 57 B. C., in the 30th year of his age. Scaliger maintains, but, without sufficient proof, that he died in his 71st year. The edition of his works by Volpius (Padua, 1737), and that of Döring (Leipsic, 1788-90, 2 vols.), deserve honorable mention. His poems are usually published with those of Tibullus and Propertius.

CAUBUL, or CABUL. (See Afghanistan.)
CAUCASUS; a chain of mountains in

Western Asia, extending from south-east to north-west, and occupying the isthmus (containing 127,140 square miles) between the Black and Caspian seas. The length is computed at 644 miles; the breadth is various; from Mosdok to Tiflis it may be estimated at 184 miles. Torrents, precipices and avalanches render the mountains almost impassable. The Caucasus is divided into two parallel chains. The central ridge, from which the mountains fall off on each side, consists of various sorts of granite. The summits are covered with snow and ice, and are mostly barren; the lower parts are clothed with thick forests. On the western declivity is the Elburs, which a Russian measurement makes 16,700 feet high. The Casibeg is 17,388 feet high. The most elevated summit (the Snowy mountain) is on the eastern side, west of the Cuban. It was first ascended by a European traveller in 1810. It is also called Schahdagh (King's mountain) and Schah-Elburs; Elburs being the common name of all the high, conical summits rising from the chain of the Caucasus. The limit of perpetual snow on these mountains is 1890 feet higher than on the Alpine regions of Savoy and Switzerland. Two of the passes, or gates, as they are often called, are remarkable-the Caucasian pass and the Albanian or Caspian pass. Most of the rivers, which take their rise in the Caucasus, flow in an easterly direction to the Caspian sea, or in a westerly course to the Black sea. On the northern declivity, the Terek flows easterly into the Caspian, and the Cuban westerly into the Black sea: beyond these rivers, the mountainous chain sinks down, by degrees, to the sandy plains in the south of Russia. On the southern declivity, the Kur flows easterly into the Caspian, and the Rioni (called by the ancients the Phasis) westerly into the Black sea: beyond these rivers rise the mountains of Turkish and Persian Armenia, which connect the Caucasus with the other chains of Western Asia. The highest ridge of the Caucasian chain is rugged and barren, but the southern declivity is extremely fruitful. The whole surface of the country abounds in forests and fountains, orchards and vineyards, cornfields and pastures, in rich alternation. Grapes and various kinds of fleshy fruits, chestnuts and figs, grow spontaneously. Grain of every description, rice, cotton and hemp flourish abundantly. But agriculture is much neglected; partly owing to the indolence of the inhabitants, and partly to

the immediate consequence of the less energetic caustics. In both cases, suppuration occurs sooner or later, and separates the disorganized from the surrounding parts. Almost all the substances used as caustics have only a local action : some, however, are capable of being absorbed, and of exercising a deleterious action on the economy in general: arsenical preparations are an instance of it. The employment of caustics is now confined to a small number of cases. The actual cautery and the knife are, in general, preferred to them. They are used principally in order to establish issues, particularly in cases in which it is necessary to produce a powerful derivation; to stop the progress of certain gangrenous affections, such as anthrax; to open certain indolent abscesses; to change the mode of vitality of the skin in some cancerous or herpetic ulcers; to destroy the excrescences of wounds or proud flesh; and, finally, to prevent the absorption of the virus deposited at the surface of poisoned wounds.

CAUSTIC POTASSA (potassa fusa; lapis causticus); impure hydrate of protoxyde of potassium; caustic kali with lime; common caustic. This is seen in flat, irregular, brittle pieces, or in round sticks, like the nitrate of silver; of a grayishwhite, sometimes reddish; of a savor extremely caustic, and a slight odor sui generis. This substance is extremely caustic; it decomposes quickly the parts with which it is put in contact, and leaves on the skin a soft, grayish eschar, which comes off slowly. Taken internally, it acts in the same way as all corrosive poisons: : it has, nevertheless, been administered, in very dilute solutions, as an antacid, diuretic, and lithontriptic. It has succeeded in the gravel, in nephritic colics, and other affections proceeding from superabundance of uric acid. It has been recommended, likewise, in the treatment of scrofula, and in some diseases of the skin, such as leprosy, &c. This solution, even when very diluted, soon irritates the stomach, and brings on anorexia, which prevents it from being used for any length

of time.

CAUSTIC SODA (soda); protoxyde of sodium. Its physical properties are similar to those of potassa, and it may be used with advantage as a succedaneum when employed as a caustic. In fact, the sub-carbonate, which forms during its action on the skin, is not deliquescent, as that of potassa, and, consequently, is not subject to spread.

CAVALCANTI, Guido; a Florentine philosopher and poet of the 13th century, the friend of Dante, and, like him, a zealous Ghibelline. When the dissensions of the Guelfs and Ghibellines disturbed the public peace of Florence, the citizens banished the chiefs of both parties. The Ghibellines were exiled to Sarzana. On account of the unhealthy air of that place, they were permitted to return; but Cavalcanti had contracted a disease of which he died (1300) at Florence. In his youth, he made a pilgrimage to St. Jago de Compostella, in Galicia. Returning home through France, he fell in love, at Toulouse, with a young lady of the name of Mandetta. To her most of his verses which we possess are addressed. They are remarkable, considering the period at which they were written, for their beautiful style. His Canzone d'Amore has gained him the most fame. The learned cardinal Egidio Colonna, and some others, have made commentaries on it. His Rime, published by Cicciaporci, appeared at Florence in 1813.

CAVALIER, in fortification, is a work generally raised within the body of the place, 10 or 12 feet higher than the rest of the works. It is most commonly situated within the bastion, and made much in the same form. Sometimes the cavaliers are placed in the gorges, or on the middle of the curtain; they are then made in the form of a horse-shoe. Their use is to command all the adjacent works and surrounding country. They are seldom made except when a rising ground overlooks some of the works. In modern times, it is considered that cavaliers in a bastion occupy too much room, render retrenchments impossible, and, unless a ditch separates the cavalier from the parapet of the bastion, cause the grenades to fall upon the defenders of the latter; for which reasons it is considered best to put them on the curtains or behind the bastions.

CAVALRY; one of the three great classes of troops, and a formidable power in the hands of a leader who knows how to employ it with effect. This requires a bold and active spirit, able to avail itself, with quickness and decision, of every opportunity. The efficacy of cavalry arises particularly from the moral impression which it produces on the enemy. This is greater in proportion to the size of the mass and the rapidity of its motion. Its adaptation to speedy movements is another great advantage, which enables a commander to avail himself immediately of a decisive moment, when the enemy

exposes a weak point, or when disorder appears in his ranks. It is a very important instrument in completing the defeat of an enemy, in disconcerting him by a sudden attack, or overthrowing him by a powerful shock. The use of cavalry is, it is true, oftentimes limited by the nature of the ground. In forests, in mountainous districts, on a marshy soil, &c., it is of but little avail in large bodies. In modern times, cavalry has been led against intrenchments, but only to its own destruction. In some instances, too, the cavalry has been dismounted, and employed as infantry; which may, on peculiar occasions, be advisable, but, on the whole, is contrary to their nature and purpose, and, if made a part of their duty, like other half measures, is usually disadvantageous. It is also unadvisable to keep large bodies of cavalry united during a campaign. They are to be collected in large masses only for particular objects. To keep them together the whole time would be troublesome, and their maintenance frequently attended with difficulty. The unequal size of the horse, the very great diversity in his strength and breed, have at all times rendered it necessary to divide the cavalry into light and heavy horse. There is sometimes, also, an intermediate class. These different sorts are employed for different purposes. The heavy cavalry, with defensive armor (cuirassiers), is more frequently employed in mass, where force is requisite; the lighter troops are used singly, and in small detachments, where swiftness and continued effort are required. Nevertheless, cuirassiers and dragoons, lancers and hussars, mounted riflemen and chevaux legers, must, in the main points, be equally exercised in the duties appertaining to cavalry, and must be able to fight in the line as well as singly. The use of cavalry is probably nearly as ancient as war itself; for in those countries where horses thrive most, and man may be said to live on horseback, he has always preferred to fight on horseback. The Egyptians are said to have had cavalry before the time of Moses. The Israelites, when at war with their neighbors, often had to encounter cavalry, but were afraid to mount horses until the time of Solomon. The Greeks appear not to have introduced cavalry into their armies till the second Messenian war, and, even after that time, had comparatively few; but with them it was considered the most respectable class of troops, in which only the wealthy citizens served. 2

VOL. III.

The Persian cavalry, and, at a later period, the Macedonian, were much more numerous. The Romans learnt its use from Pyrrhus and the Carthaginians. At a later period, the cavalry of the Gauls was particularly good. In the middle ages, the knights fought only on horseback, and disdained the foot-service. At this period, however, regular warfare was unknown, and was only gradually restored in the progress of time. After the introduction of artillery, although cavalry was used, yet its manœuvres were awkward and inefficient. The genius of Gustavus Adolphus first perceived the important use which could be made of it. He was without the heavy cavalry, which, since the time of chivalry, had gone out of use; but he found that the advantage of this species of troops did not consist in its weight, but in its quickness of motion. With reference to this, he formed his regiments of horse, and showed their real utility; but it was left to Seidlitz, a general of Frederic the Great, to display this most fully. Napoleon appears to have been well aware of the great value of cavalry in large masses, but he often sacrificed them unsparingly. This, together with certain erroneous dispositions which had crept into some armies, and had caused the cavalry to fail in services on which they ought never to have been put, and which were sometimes performed as well or better by other troops, gave rise, of late years, to doubts concerning their utility, which, however, are now abandoned. The writings of general Bismark, on the subject of cavalry, are valuable; as are also the Nachrichten und Betrachtungen über die Thaten und Schicksale der Reiterei in den Feldzügen Friederich II und in denen neuerer Zeit (Statements and Observations respecting the Conduct and Fate of the Cavalry in the Campaigns of Frederic II and in those of a later Period). In the north of Europe, lances are now common among the light cavalry, as they have proved a formidable weapon when skilfully used. They will, no doubt, effect a change in the arms, and even in the organization, of the infantry, who can do little against lancers, if rain prevents them from firing. In the Prussian cavalry, which is among the finest in the world, lancers are very numerous. A French author calls the cavalry, very appropriately, l'arme du moment; because they are peculiarly fitted to take advantage of decisive moments. A moment may occur, when a great victory can be decided by the sudden irruption of a body