nesses. The justice thinks there are sufficient grounds and he orders the accused to be committed to jail until the case can be examined by the grand jury. If the accused finds no one who is willing to furnish bail for him, he is kept in jail until the grand jury meets.

The State's attorney now investigates, and becomes convinced that the accused is guilty. When the grand jury meets, he goes before it with witnesses who are questioned by him about the crime. After hearing the testimony the jury considers the accused guilty and votes that he be tried on charge of larceny. The charge alleging the crime is written out on a piece of paper and duly signed. This paper is called an indictment, and the accused is said to be indicted for larceny.

In course of time he is tried in county court. The court is presided over by a judge of the supreme court and two assistant judges. Near by sits a jury of twelve men who have taken their oath to decide the case according to the law and evidence. Here, too, is the Clerk of Court to record proceedings, and a stenographer to take down testimony; and, in a space reserved for that purpose, sit the lawyers. One or more of these have been employed by the accused to manage his case; and one is the prosecuting attorney, who is the State's attorney for the county in which this trial takes place.

When all is ready the indictment is read to the accused, and he is asked whether or not he is guilty. He pleads innocence. During the trial he sits by his attorney. The State's attorney addresses the court, detailing the crime and telling what he expects to prove concerning the prisoner. He now calls his witnesses and all the testimony against the accused is taken. When he has no more witnesses to bring

forth, he rests his case; and the prisoner's attorney calls what witnesses he has for the defense.

After all the testimony has been taken, the attorneys make pleas (not exceeding two on each side), one arguing that the evidence shows that the accused is guilty of larceny, and the other contending that the testimony against the accused is not sufficient to prove that he is guilty. The judge then addresses the jury explaining just what must be proved in order to find the prisoner guilty. The jury (whose duty it is to decide the facts in the case) now withdraws and agrees on a verdict; and, as the verdict is "guilty," the prisoner is said to be convicted. Then the judge states the penalty of the crime and the trial is over.

If the prisoner thinks that there has been a mistake on some question of law, he may appeal to the supreme court; and if the judges of that court discover error in the lower court, they may order that the case be tried over again.

Criminal trials differ, of course, in some details from the one above sketched; but they are alike in many important points. In order that a prisoner be convicted the jury must agree that is, every one of the twelve jurymen must vote "guilty."

Civil Trials. Such a case as has been described is a criminal case; that is, a case in which a criminal law has been broken. A case in which no crime has been committed but in which two men have a disagreement over the ownership of land, money, or other personal effects, is called a civil case. The person who appeals to the court is the plaintiff, and the other the defendant. Each of the men has an attorney to conduct his case, and it is tried before a jury in much the same manner as the criminal case.

Courts. The courts of our republic may be divided

into two great classes, the Federal, or United States courts, and the State courts.

are of

Federal Courts.-The United States courts several kinds, the highest of which is the supreme court, which meets annually in Washington. The States of our Union are divided into nine circuits-New York, Connecticut, and Vermont forming together one circuit. This is known as the second circuit. The United States is divided into seventy-one districts, Vermont constituting one district and some of the larger States being divided into two or three districts, New York having four. Terms of the circuit and district courts are held jointly in three Vermont towns annually; in February at Burlington, in May at Windsor, and in October at Rutland. The laws of Congress under the Constitution determine what cases shall be heard before the Federal courts, and all others are triable before the State courts.

State Courts.-The courts of Vermont are: the supreme court, county courts, courts of chancery, probate courts, municipal courts, and justice courts.

Justice Courts; Municipal Courts.-The justice court, the lowest of all these courts, may be held in any town, and the judge in such court is called a justice of the peace. The cases tried before this court are usually so trifling in character that they are not referred to a jury, though at the request of either party a jury of six persons may be called.

In most civil cases this court has jurisdiction when the sum involved does not exceed $200; and in criminal cases when the punishment is a fine not exceeding ten dollars. Under certain conditions the decisions of the justice court may be appealed to the county court.

Municipal courts are the justice courts of a city. They have a larger jurisdiction than the town justice courts.

Probate Courts.-Vermont is divided into twenty probate districts, in each of which is held probate court. The

eight northern counties constitute each a single probate district, and the six southern counties have each two probate districts.

The probate court consists of a probate judge. This court is open at all times for the transaction of ordinary business, and sessions of the probate court are held as often as once a month. This court has the jurisdiction of will cases, settles the estates of deceased persons and wards, selects guardians for children under age and for persons who, for some reason, are incapable of managing their property, consents to the adoption of children, and does other business along these lines. It is also a court of insolvency, having, as its name indicates, the power to settle the estates of insolvent persons. Appeals from this court may be made to the county court.

The County Court.-The county court consists of a chief judge, who is a judge of the supreme court, and two assistant judges. In the shire town of each county two terms of county court are held annually. The county court tries all civil and criminal cases except such as may be tried in the justice courts, and has also jurisdiction of all cases appealed from the lower court. When questions of law arise in the trial of cases in county court, such may be carried to the supreme court for decision.

Court of Chancery, or Court of Equity.-We have also in each county a court of chancery, its sessions being held at the same time and in the same place as the county court. The chancellors of this court are the judges of the supreme court. It is the duty of this court to do equity in all cases that the law court can not reach. It has jurisdiction of such matters as suits to foreclose mortgages, to enforce the performance of contracts, the granting of