(d.) Steam trawlers to carry, on or in front of the foremast, a tri-coloured lantern, showing a white light from right ahead to 2 points on each bow, and thence an arc of green light, and one of red, to 2 points abaft the beam, on the starboard and port sides respectively. Between 6 and 12 ft. below this, a,white all-round light is to be carried.

Sailing trawlers to carry a white all-round light; and to burn a red pyrotechnic light, if on the port tack, and a green light, if on the starboard tack, in case of approach of or to other vessels.

All lights in (d.) to be visible at least 2 miles.

(e.) Oyster dredgers to show the same lights as trawlers.

(f.) Fishing-vessels and fishing-boats may use a flare light, in addition to lights required.

(g.) Same as present sub-section (f.), on page 64.

(h.) Same as present sub-section (d.), on page 64.

(i.) In vessels mentioned in sub-section (g.), on page 64, if of 20 tons gross and over, the signal to be made at intervals of not more than 1 minute, with the whistle or siren on steamers, and with the horn on sailing vessels, each blast to be followed by the ringing of a bell.

(k.) Boats and vessels fishing, when under way, to display a basket, or other signal denoting their occupation, to vessels approaching; and if at anchor, this signal should be shown on the side on which approaching vessels may pass.

Art. 11. The stern light may be carried in a fixed lantern, on about the same level as the side-lights, and constructed so as to be visible right aft for 6 points on either side.

Art. 12. Sound Signals for Fog, Heavy Rain, &c.-1. To be made by steam vessels on a Whistle or Siren. 2. By sailing vessels, or vessels towed, on a Fog-horn. A "prolonged blast" is a blast of 4 to 6 seconds duration. (a.) Signal as before. (b.) A steam vessel stopped, with no way on her, to sound at intervals of not more than 2 minutes, two prolonged blasts, separated by an interval of 1 second. (c.) A sailing ship to make her signal (as before), at intervals of not more than 1 minute.

(d.) When at anchor, vessels to ring the bell rapidly for 5 seconds at intervals of not more than 1 minute. (e.) A vessel towing, a vessel engaged over a telegraph cable, and a vessel under way but not under command, instead of the above signals, to sound one prolonged blast closely followed by two short blasts, at intervals of not more than 2 minutes. A vessel towed may also give this signal, but no other.

Sailing vessels, and boats, of less than 20 tons gross, if they do not give the above signals, to make some efficient signal at intervals of not more than 1 minute.

Art. 16. When a steam vessel hears a fog signal apparently forward of her beam, she is to stop her engines, &c., till danger of collision is over.

Art. 18. After " Every steam ship," read "directed by these Rules to keep out of the way of another vessel"; and she should, if possible, avoid crossing ahead of the other.

Art. 19. A "short blast" to be of 1 second duration. These signals are now obligatory, and may be made on the Whistle or Siren. Three short blasts to mean "My engines are going full speed astern."

Art. 20. A vessel approaching another vessel from any direction more than 2 points abaft her beam, is deemed to be an "overtaking" vessel, and no subsequent alteration of the bearing between the two shall make the overtaking vessel a crossing" vessel within the meaning of the Rules.

66

Art. 22. Add the words "and speed." If collision cannot be avoided by the action of the giving-way vessel alone, the other must also take action to avert it.

Art. 26.
Art. 27.

Add, 66

or for duly authorised recognition signals."

Add, "4. A continuous sounding with any fog-signal apparatus." NEW RULES.-Art. 12. To attract attention, a vessel may show a flare, or use any detonating signal which cannot be mistaken for a distress signal, in addition to the required lights.

Art. 14. A steam vessel under sail only, with her funnel up, to carry forward one black ball or shape 2 feet in diameter.

Art. 22. A vessel directed to keep out of the way by these Rules, to avoid crossing ahead of the other vessel, if possible.

Art. 26. Sailing vessels to keep out of the way of boats fishing, but the latter must not obstruct a fairway.

Vice-Admiral P. H. Colomb points out that the new Art. 22 infers that a "giving-way" ship, seeing a red light on her starboard bow, must port her, helm. A vessel, seeing a red light anywhere, or hearing a fog signal on her starboard bow, must not starboard her helm; and a vessel, seeing a green light anywhere, or hearing a fog signal on her port bow, must not port her helm; as these movements would be prima facie attempts to " cross ahead." Squadrons of war-vessels should be given a wide berth, and no attempts made to pass ahead of them, through them, or to break their line.

WARNING SIGNALS, for Use at Night, or in Thick Weather.Owing to several disasters, which might have been prevented had there been a recognized means of giving warning of danger, the following signals have been authorized, by means of lights and whistles, horns, sirens, &c. The signal is U of the Morse alphabet, two short followed by one long flashes or blasts, meaning "You are standing into danger," given thus :-flash or blast 1 second, interval 1 second, flash or blast 1 second, interval 1 second, then flash or blast 3 seconds. The acknowledging signal is a series of long and short flashes or blasts.

To attract attention, a series of short flashes or blasts should be made, till replied to in a similar way, if possible. The given signal should then be made; or it may be made without preparatory signals, if advisable.

Page 78.-DEMURRAGE.-The Court of Appeal decided, in the case of Crawford v. Wilson, Sons, and Co., that the owners were not liable for demurrage, for the discharge of a cargo of coal at Rio being much delayed owing to a political revolution being in progress. (See, also, Addenda for page 11).

Addenda.

Page 125.-PIRACY.-The Rev. T. J. Lawrence, Lecturer on International Law at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, defines Piracy as involving" (1.) the commission of an act, or acts, of violence, (2.) outside the territorial jurisdiction of any civilised state, (3.) and without authorisation from any recognised political community. That an act may be piratical, these three marks must co-exist. The absence of any one of them deprives it of its piratical character. The only exception to this statement occurs when a whole nation takes to depredating upon the high seas, and its vessels attack and capture those of other powers in time of peace with the full knowledge and sanction of its government.

"One of the essential characteristics of a piratical act is that its perpetrators shall have cut themselves adrift from all national authority. They are acting entirely on their own account. They are responsible with their lives for their misdeeds; and it would be the height of injustice to demand from the state, whose subjects they are by birth and allegiance, reparation for crimes done by them outside its jurisdiction, and in defiance of its laws."-Nautical Magazine, 1896, pages 1029-1035.

Page 128.-MARINE INSURANCE.-In the case of the Blairmore, which was sunk in harbour by a squall, and abandoned by the owners as a constructive total loss, the underwriters raised and repaired the vessel, and contended that there was only a partial loss. The Scotch Courts supported. this contention, but, on appeal to the House of Lords, in 1898, it was decided that underwriters cannot by their own acts convert a total loss into a partial loss.

In case of a vessel being sunk in any harbour or fairway, and the expense of raising or removal threatens to be great, it seems advisable for owners to abandon to the underwriters as a loss, rather than face the risk of being called upon by the local authorities to bear the cost of removal.

Page 134.-GENERAL AVERAGE.-In the case of the Wavertree, bound from London to Sydney, where a fire occurred on board, entailing general average expenses, a Liverpool firm was engaged to make out the statement, but one of the Sydney consignees refused to give particulars as to the value of his consignment, contending that the statement should be drawn up in Sydney. The Colonial Courts supported him in this contention; but, on appeal to the Privy Council, 1897, this judgment was reversed, on the ground that an average bond does not require that it should be made out in any particular place or by any particular person, and that the captain only is responsible for the statement, which he may make out himself, if he consider it politic to dispense with the services of an average stater, or other qualified person.

In most foreign countries, the law requires the average statement to be drawn up at the port of discharge or repair, by an average stater, unless there be any special agreement to the contrary.

Page 159.-INQUIRIES into SHIPPING CASUALTIES, Procedure in Scotland.-At an Inquiry into the stranding of the steamer Samara, August, 1894, the master's certificate was suspended for steering too fine a course, for neglecting to verify his position by the log and lead, and failing to make sufficient allowance for tide. On October 30, an Appeal by the master against the finding was heard by the Court of Session at Edinburgh, and sustained with expenses. The Lord President, when delivering judgment, made the following amongst other remarks:-" In the first place, this Inquiry opens without any vestige of written notice to the person accused of what are the gravamen to be advanced against him. I find chose to put the master into the witness-box and examine him on the matters in hand. My Lords, I am not prepared to support a sentence pronounced in these circumstances.” Lord McLaren, in concurring, said: "I agree with your lordship that it is not in general safe to proceed under an inquiry, which has punishment or censure for one of its objects, without giving fair notice to the accused of all points which are to be made against him. I think we could

that the Board of Trade

not consistently, with justice to the defender, maintain the sentence."

Incidentally, in this appeal, when the Board of Trade counsel wished to make a point against the master, because he, the master, could not explain the casualty, the Court interposed with the valuable dictum, "You cannot convict a shipmaster because he cannot frame a theory to account for a casualty." Courts of Inquiry have usually held the opposite view. The Court of Appeal found that the course steered was not too fine, that a correct allowance had been made for (normal) tides and currents, and that neglect of the lead and log had never been put to the master at all in the original hearing.

The remarks which the Lord President made, in giving judgment, have been interpreted by the sheriffs (who preside in Casualty Inquiries held in Scotland) to have the far-reaching effect of giving a shipmaster, mate, engineer, or owner, the right to have intimated to him by the Board of Trade, and before he enters the witness-box, a statement of the matters upon which he is to be examined, if the Board are to seek to obtain conviction on any of these matters.

Practically, the Inquiries in Scotland, since the Samara appeal, have begun by the Board of Trade (under protest) putting in the famous " questions" first. This improvement, won at sword's point in Scotland, is one which for some time past the Lord Chancellor has been asked by the Shipmasters' and Officers' Federation to concede of free grace for the United Kingdom.

Two recent appeals, both Scottish, have thus led (in Scotland at least) to a distinct gain in the way of breaking down the harsh and arbitrary conditions under which these Inquiries are held, and a point has been gained in the direction of constitutional, just, and legal procedure.-The London Shipmasters' Society, Paper No. 36, pages 32-33.

Page 176.-UNSEAWORTHINESS.-Undermanning.-By the Merchant Shipping Act, 1897 (60 and 61 Vict., ch. 59), it was enacted that sections 459 and 462 of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1894, shall apply in the case of undermanning, power being given to muster the crew in British ships. Under this Act, the Board of Trade require that foreign-going steamships, over 200 ft. long, or not less than 700 tons gross, when proceeding to sea, should have, independently of the captain and two mates, sufficient deck-hands to form two watches, each formed of at least one competent hand at the wheel, a look-out man, and an additional hand on deck, in addition to the officer of the watch. In smaller steamers, or sailing vessels, no hard and fast rule is laid down, but the Board of Trade officials have power to detain them if they consider them to be undermanned.

In an action for damages to a cargo of maize, caused by heating, owing to imperfect ventilation, the cowls not being on, in consequence of bad weather, the plaintiffs gained their case, in 1897, the Admiralty Court holding that the vessel, the Bellasco, was unseaworthy as regarded ventilation.

Page 187.-Deck Cargoes.-In September, 1896, the Board of Trade issued a notice defining "light wood goods," in sub-sec. 3 of sec. 451 of the Act, as being "any goods of light wood, such as pit-props, sleepers, battens, boards, deal-ends, lath-wood, Norway spars, and firewood, the units of which are of no greater cubic capacity than 15 cubic feet. Logs and spars 8 inches square and over, or 24 inches and upwards in girth, although of light wood, and no greater than 15 cubic feet, must be deemed to be timber."

Page 190.-DECK and LOAD-LINES, &c.-In March, 1898, a Committee was appointed by the Board of Trade, to inquire into the operation of the rules as to Winter freeboard in the North Atlantic Ocean. In their report, just issued, the Committee recommend that the winter load-line should be dispensed with in the case of vessels over 330 ft. long, and should be imposed less rigorously on smaller vessels. In ports far inland, they recommend that allowance should be made for the weight of the coal which will be consumed before the vessel reaches the sea. They also agree with the contention of owners and captains, that the parallel of lat. 37° 30' N. is not in any sense a rational boundary between the fine and stormy areas. Rules will shortly be issued, modifying those now in force.

The Indian Summer, or fine season in the Indian Seas, is now defined as from November 15 to May 25, East of Tuticorin ; and from September 1 to May 25, West of it.

Page 248.-Sec. 185 refers to Lascars engaged as seamen, &c., and not to Lascar passengers.

Sec. 186.-Under the circumstances recited, the seaman or apprentice discharged abroad must

(a.) Be provided with employment on a British ship bound to the port in Her Majesty's dominions where he was shipped, or to a port in the United Kingdom agreed to by the seaman, or

(b.) Be furnished with the means of returning to some such port, or (c. and d.) Be provided with a passage home.