sion of the franchise gave the Clericals their preponderating strength over the Liberals, but it also made the Socialists a great party. The Cabinet had not yet come to a decision on the new electoral bill when invidious accusations were made against King Leopold such as have not infrequently been uttered to the discredit of this once popular monarch. The Prime Minister was opposed to the suggested solution of the electoral question, and when the majority of the ministers, after long deliberation, gave their approval to the plan of uninominal voting he and his colleague, M. Nyssens, Minister of Industry and Labor, tendered their resignations, which were accepted on Jan. 23. M. Van den Peereboom, Minister of War, took the premiership, while M. Liebart became Minister of Finance in succession to M. De Smet de Naeyer, and M. Cooreman was made Minister of Industry and Labor. The new Premier, a representative of the extreme Clericals, announced that the Government was not committed to the uninominal system, and would examine all the schemes for electoral reform. The question was postponed for a time. On March 29 the Socialists provoked a stormy scene in the Chamber when they interpellated the Government regarding the expulsion from Belgium of the French ex-priest Victor Charbonnel. When the president suspended the sitting the members of the Left advanced in a threatening manner against the Deputies of the Right, and, amid a deafening uproar, abusive epithets were interchanged and challenges to duels of fered, while in the galleries the spectators fought with the ushers who tried to eject them and with soldiers who were called in to assist.

In the middle of April a great strike of coal miners began, extending from the Charleroi and central districts to Mons, Seraing, Liège, and other coal fields. The gendarmery of the disturbed districts was strengthened, and attempts to interfere with men at work were severely dealt with, so that tranquillity was maintained in most places where the strikers were inclined to be violent, but as a rule they were orderly. There was soon complete cessation of work in all the principal coal mines, and the industrial establishments were compelled to work with a reduced supply of coal, some of them to stop work altogether. In a very few days the situation was relieved by the arrival of large supplies from France, Germany, and Great Britain. The masters, pointing out that wages had been increased 20 per cent. in two years, offered to accept the arbitration of the agents at the mines and the workingmen inspectors. The men had no confidence in the proposed arbitration. They held out for nearly a month, but the arrival of coal from abroad in abundance compelled them to give way at last, and return to work without obtaining what they demanded. Just after the collapse of the strike the International Miners' Congress met at Brussels in the great hall of the newly opened Maison du Peuple, the clubhouse and meeting place of the Socialist Labor party. These people's houses have been erected in all the industrial towns of Belgium in connection with co-operative bakeries, which are a valuable prop to the vigorous Socialistic party in Belgium. Every member of the co-operative society, of which there are 18,000 in Brussels, is required to sign a declaration approving the programme of the party. The bakeries of the society in Brussels, distributing 220,000 loaves daily, employ 200 persons, who work eight hours, have a week's vacation every year, earn a minimum wage of 5 francs, besides 2 per cent. of the

Each

profits, and receive gratuitous medical attendance in sickness. These societies are the largest producers of bread in Belgium, and they have compelled the bakers to reduce the price of loaves. Some of the profits are used for political and educational purposes. More recently the Socialists have started a trade in tobacco, the entire profits of which are devoted to the election fund for Socialist candidates. The Miners' Congress, which assembled on May 22, consisted of 47 delegates, representing 1,433,000 miners in Great Britain, France, Belgium, Germany, and Austria. A vote in favor of establishing a legal eight-hour day from bank to bank was opposed only by the delegates of the 30,000 miners of Northumberland, and was carried by the 1,403,000 others. motion from the German and Austrian delegates that the law should apply also to surface workers was carried unanimously. The congress adopted unanimously a resolution holding employers liable for all accidents, and forbidding either workmen or employers to contract themselves out of the provisions of the law. The electoral reform proposed was an adaptation of a complex system of proportional representation that was put into force in 1892 in the Swiss canton of Ticino, and had been adopted for municipal elections in Belgium. By this plan each party puts forward a list of candidates, as many as they expect with certainty to elect, every elector having as many votes as there are seats to be filled, the upper classes in Belgium twice or thrice as many in virtue of their possessing property, education, or families. vote for an entire list, and for no candidate on any other, is put down as a vote for this list. When the votes are counted those candidates are declared elected who receive an absolute majority of the votes cast, and the remaining seats are apportioned by the process of a complicated arithmetical calculation among the various lists in proportion to the number of votes given for them. A number of substitutes are elected along with the regular ticket, and a part of those nominated by the victorious party also obtain seats in addition to the regular candidates, their number being regulated by the excess of the vote over the proportional vote required to seat all those on the regular list. The other supplementary candidates are held in reserve to fill vacancies caused by death or resignation. The bill was therefore intended to do away with by-elections, and in various ways was advantageous to the party in power, which might promote spurious candidatures to divide the votes of its opponents or place moderates on its regular list to be replaced later by extreme partisans from the supplementary list, as was done when this system of voting was first put in practice in Switzerland. The main grievance in the proposed bill to the Socialists and the Liberals and Radicals was that it prevented their intended alliance in such constituencies as Brussels more effectually than the uninominal system would, and that it was made applicable only to the constituencies where it would impair their chances of winning or was certain to reduce their representation, while in the smaller districts, where it would enable them to take some seats away from the Clericals, the system of voting was left unchanged. The representation of minorities was to be given, indeed, only to the few cities electing six or more Deputies-namely, Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, Liège, and Charleroi in which the minorities are Clericals. By abolishing second ballots it defeated the proposed coalition between the Social Democrats, the Progressists, and

the Moderate Liberals, since these parties, agreeing only in their common enmity to the Clericals, could not consistently support each other's candidates until the first ballot had proved that their own had no prospect of being elected.

Opinion was much divided on the question of establishing a minimum living wage, and, while the majority believed that one ought to be established by law sufficiently high to allow a decent existence, all agreed that this minimum must vary according to local conditions.

Toward the end of June the Government brought forward the electoral bill that had been decided upon. This embodied not the proposal for cutting up the country into single districts, but a plan advanced by M. Van den Peereboom, which he called a compromise, but which was even more obnoxious to the Socialists and Liberals, because it was more flagrantly unfair. The former proposal was withdrawn because it encountered not only the fierce resistance of the various sections of the Opposition, but was condemned by the moderate Conservatives and some even of the stricter sect. As soon as the Government bill was announced the Brussels Socialists agreed to order a general strike of the workers of the city on July 5, when the debate would begin in the Chamber. A universal strike is a political weapon that has been employed in Belgium alone, where all workers are organized in trade unions and all unions are controlled by the Labor party. It was by means of a political strike that the extension of the franchise was wrung from the Government in 1893. On June 28 a great assemblage of demonstrants surrounded the Parliament buildings and the royal palace, which was dispersed only after a sharp conflict with the gendarmery, who charged repeatedly with fixed bayonets and drawn swords. The next day the Socialists in the Chamber called the Government to account for what they described as the brutalities of the police. The Prime Minister defended his electoral scheme as being of the nature of a compromise, and said that any other would be equally liable to attack. M. Van der Velde, one of the Socialist leaders, declared that his party would call upon the people to defend themselves, and M. Lorand demanded the postponement of the electoral law, declaring that otherwise disorder would continue both in the Chamber and in the streets. M. Furnemont moved to censure the Government, and his resolution was rejected by 87 to 31 votes. The sitting was suspended, owing to the uproar that followed, and cries for a republic were raised in the crowd assembled outside as the Deputies left the hall. The Socialist members marched at the head of an immense procession, which burst through the cordons of police that blocked the way and filled the great square, where M. Van der Velde delivered a speech. In the evening a mob made a demonstration before the Ministry of War which mounted gendarmes were unable to stop, and later the crowd showered stones upon the gendarmes, who charged with drawn swords in the great square. When the people began to pull up the paving stones to use as missiles against the gendarmes, these were replaced by civic guards. The next day and evening fiercer riots took place, and the gendarmes who attempted to clear the great square used ball cartridges after several useless bayonet charges, while the rioters hurled all kinds of missiles from the streets and houses, and began throwing up barricades. Before morning the military were brought into requisition. About 100 persons were injured. On the following day

the Premier, in reply to an appeal for conciliation from the Socialists on grounds of humanity, promised to postpone action in order to study the situation. The burgomasters of Brussels, Ghent, Antwerp, and Liège declared that they could not answer for public order if the electoral bill were proceeded with. Civic guards cheered the Socialist parades, and in some places went to Socialist meetings with arms reversed in token of surrender. Regular soldiers also attended these meetings in uniform. The royal family were said to be getting ready to flee from Belgium. In Liège the entire civic guard joined the Socialists at the Maison du Peuple. Monster meetings were held by Socialists and Radicals together at Antwerp, Brussels, and other places. The workmen of the mining districts and the great factory towns agreed to join in a general strike. On July 4 Minister Van den Peereboom proposed to appoint a committee, in which all parties should be represented, to consider fresh electoral proposals. M. Theodor, an independent member, then brought forward a proposal to extend the system of full proportional representation to the whole country. M. Van der Velde, speaking for both parties of the Left, accepted the Premier's proposal to refer all electoral schemes to a committee, as this amounted to a withdrawal of the original scheme, and said that the Left consented to form part of the committee as representing the country, which had achieved a great victory. All traces of agi tation disappeared as soon as the Government thus capitulated. The committee was appointed, consisting of 15 members. On July 31 it reported against the Government measures, rejecting also the other proposals submitted to it. In consequence of the committee's decision the ministers on Aug. 1 tendered their resignation, and the King called upon M. De Smet de Naeyer to form a Cabinet. This was constituted on Aug. 4 as follows: Premier and Minister of Finance and of Public Works, M. De Smet de Naeyer; Minister of the Interior, M. De Trooz; Minister of Justice, M. Van den Heuvel; Minister of War, Gen. Cousebant Alkemade; Minister of Foreign Affairs, M. De Favereau; Minister of Agriculture, Baron Van der Bruggen; Minister of Industry and Labor and provisionally of Railroads, M. Liebart. The new Premier announced the adoption of a modification of M. Theodor's proposal of complete proportional representation. Instead of allowing a party commanding a clear majority of the electoral vote of a district to elect a whole list of candidates and fill all the seats, a new system is introduced limiting the seats assigned to the proportion of votes cast by each party, thus giving minorities full proportional representation everywhere. The Government bill provided for the addition of 15 new members to the Chambers.

BOLIVIA, a republic in South America. The legislative power is vested in the Congress, consisting of a Senate of 18 members, elected for six years, and a House of Representatives of 64 members, elected for four years. Every male Bolivian of full age who can read and write possesses the franchise. The President is elected for four years by the vote of the nation, and is not re-eligible for the next succeeding term.

The President is Severo Fernandez Alonso, who entered upon the office on Aug. 15, 1896. The First Vice-President and President of the Congress and Senate is Dr. Rafael Peña; Second Vice-President, Dr. Genaro Sanjines. The Cabinet at the opening of 1899 was composed of the following members: Minister of Foreign Affairs

and Worship, Dr. Manuel M. Gomez; Minister of Finance, L. Gutierrez; Minister of the Interior and Justice, Macario Pinilla; Minister of Public Instruction, Colonization, Telegraphs, Public Works, and Industry, T. Valdivieto; Minister of War, J. E. Herrero.

Area and Population.-The area of Bolivia is 567,430 square miles. The population is estimated at 2,019,549, exclusive of about 250,000 uncivilized Indians. About one fourth the people are of European descent, one fourth mixed, and one half Indian.

Finances. The revenue in 1896 was 3,566,777 bolivianos, or dollars, and the expenditure 4,264,681 bolivianos. In 1897 the revenue was 4,840,300 bolivianos, of which 2,691,723 bolivianos came from customs, 406,281 bolivianos from alcohol, 679,582 bolivianos from silver and minerals, 149,003 bolivianos from export duty on rubber and from patents, 238,890 bolivianos from postage and revenue stamps, and 149,000 bolivianos from nickel coinage. The revenue for 1898 was estimated at 5,194,593 bolivianos, and the expenditure at 5,713,897 bolivianos. The chief expenditures were 1,817,490 bolivianos for instruction and public works, 1,517,483 bolivianos for financial administration, and 1,519,218 bolivianos for the army.

The internal debt amounted in 1898 to 3,707,541 bolivianos. There was an external debt of 1,084,555 bolivianos due to Chilian creditors, having been reduced from the original sum of 6,500,000 bolivianos. For the payment of this 40 per cent. of the customs duties of the port of Arica was devoted.

The Army. The standing army is about 2,000 strong. The National Guard is made up of all able-bodied Bolivians, who under the conscription law of 1892 are liable to serve between the ages of twenty-one and fifty in the line, the reserve, the extraordinary reserve, and the territorial guard. The total number in the army and the various reserves is reported to be 82,000 men. Commerce and Production.-Bolivia produces enough wheat, corn, beans, and potatoes for food, and large numbers of cattle, sheep, and llamas. These last are the common beasts of burden. The wool grown in the country is made into cloth for the common people. Coffee is exported to Chili and the Argentine Republic. Sugar is grown and distilled into rum, and more is imported from Peru. Rubber is exported in increasing quantities. Cinchona and coca are also important articles of export. Bolivia is exceedingly rich in minerals, producing silver, tin, copper, lead, zinc, antimony, gold, and bismuth. The silver mined in 1894 amounted to 14,519,296 ounces. About 4,000 tons of concentrated tin ore and 2,000 tons of extracted metal are produced annually. The annual product of copper in the form of barilla is 3,000 tons. The value of the foreign trade is known only by estimates. The total imports were valued in 1897 at 24,467,100 bolivianos. The chief articles were provisions, hardware, wines and liquors, cotton, linen, woolen, and silk tissues, and apparel. The major part of the goods came from Germany, and considerable quantities from England. The total exports were valued at 23,121,320 bolivianos. The export of silver was 14,876,000 bolivianos in value; tin and bismuth, 3,821,000 bolivianos; copper, 2,650,000 bolivianos; rubber, 1,351,000 bolivianos. In addition to the reported exports, large quantities of goods are smuggled out of the country without paying duties. In addition to the above articles, wool, hides and skins, gold, coffee, cinchona bark, and coca are exported, and

rubber, the annual value of which is about 900,000 bolivianos.

Railroads, Posts, and Telegraphs.-A railroad runs from the Chilian port of Antofagasta to Uyuni, Huanchaca, and Oruro. About 500 miles are in Bolivian territory. Railroads to Peru and the Argentine Republic are projected.

The telegraph lines have a length of 2,260 miles. The post office in 1897 carried 1,983,522 internal and 516,722 international letters.

Overthrow of the Government.-An uprising against the Government of President Alonso net with success in April, 1899. The revolutionists under Col. Pando won a victory over the Government forces in a pitched battle, and when they entered Oruro the President fled over the border into Chili. A new Government was constituted immediately, and in a few days quiet

was restored.

BRAZIL, a federal republic in South America. The legislative power is vested in the National Congress, consisting of a Senate of 63 members, 3 from each state and the federal district, and a House of Deputies, containing 212 members. The Senators are elected for nine years, one in each state every three years, by direct suffrage. The Deputies are elected every three years, as many for each state as it has multiples of 70,000 population. All male Brazilians able to read and write possess the franchise with the exception of soldiers in active service, members of monastic orders, and paupers and criminals. The President of the republic is elected by the direct vote of the nation for the term of four years.

The President is Dr. Manoel Ferraz de Campos Salles, who was elected for the term beginning Nov. 15, 1898. The Vice-President is Dr. Francisco Rosa e Silva. The Cabinet in the beginning of 1899 was composed of the following members: Minister of Foreign Affairs, Gen. Dionysio E. de Castro Coqueira; Minister of Finance, Dr. Bernardino de Campos; Minister of War, Gen. J. T. de Cantuaria; Minister of Industry, Marshal J. Rodriguez de Moraes Jardin; Minister of the Interior and Justice, Dr. Amaro Cavalcanti; Minister of Marine, Rear-Admiral Manoel J. Alves Barbosa.

Area and Population.-Brazil has an area of 3,209,878 square miles, with a population of 14,333,915 at the census of 1890, divided into 7,237,932 males and 7,095,983 females. The population of Rio de Janeiro was 522,651. The number of immigrants in 1896 was 157,948, of whom 96,324 were Italians, 24,154 Portuguese, 11,366 AustroHungarians, and 1,070 Germans.

Finances. The revenue for 1897 was 293,223,100 milreis, and the expenditure 328,974,000 milreis. For 1898 the estimated revenue was 325,197,123 milreis; expenditure, 372,812,424 milreis. The budget estimate of revenue for 1899 was 346,164,000 milreis, of which import duties were expected to produce 222,000,000 milreis; railroads, 45,080,000 milreis; posts and telegraphs, 12,900,000 milreis; stamps, 10,000,000 milreis; waterworks of Rio de Janeiro, 2,000,000 milreis; lottery taxes, 1,000,000 milreis; tobacco duties, 2,000,000 milreis; other sources, 46,184,000 milreis. The expenditure for 1899 was estimated at 346,000,423 milreis, of which 16,009,897 milreis were allowed to the Ministry of the Interior and Justice, 1,832,412 milreis to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 26,439,932 milreis to the Ministry of Marine, 46,329,296 milreis to the Ministry of War, 89,464,676 milreis to the Ministry of Industry, and 165,924,210 milreis to the Ministry of Finance. The revised estimates made the total revenue 351,114,000 milreis, and expendi

in exchange. Still the exchange value of the milreis, which at par would be 54 cents, was only 12 cents in 1899. Coffee, the main product of the country, was still very depressed in 1899, owing chiefly to overproduction, the world's crop of 1898 having been about 850,000 tons, of which Brazil produced 660,000 tons, while the world's requirements were only 750,000. The crop of 1899 in Brazil was almost 600,000 tons. In 1900 many new plantations will come into bearing. Navigation. During 1897 there were 1,274 vessels from foreign ports, of 2,146,834 tons, entered at the port of Rio de Janeiro; 948, of 1,145,706 tons, at Pernambuco; 285, of 258,368 tons, at Ceará; 189, of 260,443 tons, at Maranhão; 241, of 51,763 tons, at Rio Grande do Norte; 194, of 185,488 tons, at Parahyba; 429, of 227,713 tons, at Paranagua; and 474, of 294,145 tons, at Rio Grande do Sul.

The merchant fleet in 1898 comprised 229 steamers, of 94,262 tons, and 344 sailing vessels, of 88,000 tons. There were 212 steamers, of 70,680 tons, and 388 sailing vessels, of 26,637 tons, employed in 1897 in the coasting trade, in which, under the law that entered into force in December, 1896, no foreign-owned vessels can participate.

Railroads, Posts, and Telegraphs.-The railroads of Brazil had on Jan. 1, 1897, a total length of 8,662 miles completed and 4,670 miles under construction, besides 4,670 miles surveyed and 8,440 miles more projected. Of the completed lines, 1,982 miles belonged to the National Government, 3,260 miles to the states, 2,430 miles to subsidized companies, and 990 miles to other companies. Of the lines under construction 880 miles belonged to the states, 3,699 miles to subsidized companies, and 384 miles to other companies. The Government usually guarantees 6 or 7 per cent. interest on the capital of the subsidized lines. The cost of the Government railroads was 257,674,937 milreis, and the sums paid to cover deficiencies in the revenue amounted to 11,118,481 milreis.

The Government telegraph lines have a total length of 10,143 miles, with 21,936 miles of wire. The number of messages sent in 1895 was 1,283,695. The receipts were estimated for 1897 at 3,600,000 milreis; expenses, 9,844,722 milreis.

The postal traffic in 1897 was 33,441,000 letters and postal cards and 37,674,000 samples and printed packets.

The

Political Affairs.-Before the meeting of Congress on May 3 the Brazilian Government had agreed in principle to the proposition of Great Britain to submit to arbitration the question of the boundary line between Brazil and British Guiana, and had sent Joaquin Nabuco to London to negotiate an arbitration treaty. country had remained perfectly tranquil since Campos Salles assumed the presidency. In his message to Congress the President asked for a revision of the pension law and the creation of a law dealing with the stamp duties, which the separate states had unconstitutionally appropriated. He also proposed measures to improve the collection of customs duties and other dues. The economic and financial reconstruction of the country required the good-will and the efforts of all Brazilians. The equilibrium of the budget without the aid of fresh issues or loans and without fresh taxation, which the country could not bear, the President hoped to achieve by strict retrenchment and economies. The commercial policy to be followed was to export everything that Brazil can produce better than other countries and import everything that other countries

can produce better than can Brazil. He approved the leasing of railroads, as the small lines already leased, which gave deficits under Government management, are now under private control yielding surpluses. The income derived from the railroads already leased, together with the payment by the banks of their indebtedness and the sale of Government assets, go to constitute the redemption fund, while the guarantee fund is derived from the gold customs duties, increased 5 per cent. The President asked Congress to abrogate the law of 1875 authorizing temporary issues. When Dr. Prudente de Moraes Barros transmitted the presidency to Dr. Campos Salles in November, 1898, he had effectually broken down the system of militarism that oppressed and demoralized the country during the administrations of Deodoro da Fonseca and Floriano Peixoto, though the effort nearly cost him his life on Nov. 5, 1897, at the hands of conspirators belonging to a band of unscrupulous political opponents, who plotted to bring his reforms to an abrupt end by assassination. The bullet struck down Marshal Bittencourt, the Minister of War, instead of President Moraes. The murderers were finally sentenced on July 5, 1899, to undergo thirty years of imprisonment.

BRITISH COLUMBIA, the westernmost province of the Dominion of Canada.

Politics and Legislation.-To the Pacific coast portion of Canada 1899 was a most progressive year, and at the same time a very stormy one politically. The Legislature was opened on Jan. 6 by Lieut.-Gov. T. R. McInnes. In the

speech from the throne" he said:

"In nearly all the leading industries of the province growth and improved conditions are to be observed. The output of the coal mines largely exceeded that of the previous year. The development of the quartz mines, especially of those in Kootenay, has been most satisfactory, while a like activity to that which has occurred there, it seems probable, may soon be witnessed in the Boundary creek district, when, by the completion of the railway now in process of construction, the immense bodies of ore known to exist there can be profitably developed. On the west coasts of the mainland and island there is also every probability of considerable mining developments shortly taking place. There is also likely to be a large increase within the present year in placer and hydraulic mining operations. Already some large enterprises of this character have been put in successful operation in Cariboo and, on a small scale, in the Om'neca district; while the recent discoveries at Atlin lake, in the northern part of the province, has disclosed deposits of auriferous gravel rich in quality and spread over a large area. In anticipation of an influx of population into that region, my Government has already taken steps for the proper administration of the district. In order to conserve the natural wealth in these gold gravels for the benefit of Canadian miners and Canadian traders, a bill will be placed before you prohibiting the acquisition of placer claims by aliens. After some years of depression the outlook for the lumbering industry appears more favorable, while the enterprise of those engaged in it has opened new and large markets for the products of our forests. I regret that the past season has not been a successful one for the salmon-canning industry on the Fraser river, owing to a combination of adverse circumstances. With abundant crops and an ever-expanding home market, there is little doubt that in the future agricultural pursuits will contribute much more largely to the wealth of the province.