berg trundled the long caravans of great Cape wagons, each drawn by a dozen yoke of oxen. The Transvaal was the land of Canaan after all, for there the Philistines could not oppress them. The elder Kruger took up a farm as large as a county, and when the boys grew up and married they made locations for themselves. Paul was known throughout the Transvaal for his strength, skill, courage, and resource. He hunted over the whole country, and killed more lions than any one else. No Kaffir could match him in fleetness of foot or endurance. Sound and shrewd of judgment, keen in practical affairs, convincing in argument, eloquent, masterful, he asserted himself among the young burghers, and soon held a place in the councils of the young nation of which he was the product and the type. He became field cornet, a member of the Volksraad, an active and diligent member who shaped legislation because he was grounded in the principles on which the republic was based and a thorough believer in them. He became a member of the Executive Council under President Burgers in 1872. When dissatisfaction at the liberal religious views of President Burgers threatened to disrupt the republic, when the failure of the expedition against the Bapedi rebels and the financial embarrassment caused by the President's ambitious policy of internal improvements seemed to justify the opinion of the pious Doppers that the Lord had deserted the republic, an English commissioner appeared and raised the British flag over the Transvaal, and a strong body of troops marched in straightway. Paul Kruger, Piet Joubert, all the Boers, all the Boer wives still more, were determined that the republic should not go under, that the Englander should not rule them and their children. All signed a memorial declaring that they did not desire British annexation-all the Boers, not the British and German traders and artisans who had invited the occupation. Kruger, Joubert, and Pretorius went to London to protest against the action of Sir Theophilus Shepstone, went again with this document to disprove the statement that the people had asked for annexation, and were informed that the British flag, once raised, would not be hauled down. The Boer deputation returned home discomfited, but not entirely disheartened. They knew their people's patience, persistence, unity, courage. The case was not worse than when they warred against Dingaan and his Zulus. They did as they had done in that dire time of tribulation. They came to gether quietly to discuss and plan. They prayed and sang the Transvaal hymn of deliverance from the British yoke. They quietly acquired more firearms and stored up provisions. When the British had reduced their garrisons they suddenly raised the flag of independence. The British sent troops up from Natal, and the Boers trapped them and beat them. When a rude farming community of about 6,000 men bade defiance to the British Empire, and when 800 British regulars were put to flight on ground selected by an English general by 156 of these farmers, there seemed to be political and military grounds for vindicating British prestige, and therefore an army was sent to subjugate the Transvaalers. When, on the other hand, every Dutch Afrikander felt his blood boil when he saw what England had done and intended to do to his kindred in the Transvaal there were political and military grounds for the British Government to stay its hand. Mr. Gladstone appreciated these grounds, and he understood that it would be more ignominious for Great Britain to impose a tyrannical yoke on a

race of white freemen than it was to have British soldiers worsted in a few skirmishes. Therefore the convention of 1881 was signed, giving back self-government to the Transvaal, Great Britain retaining suzerainty. The military successes that brought about this result were due to Joubert, who was elected commandant general. The political and diplomatic success was achieved by Kruger, and for that reason the burghers chose him in 1882 to be President of the Transvaal Republic, and in 1883, when the regular electoral period came round, he was reelected for five years, and in each successive election since, in 1888, in 1893, and in 1898. The convention of 1881 did not secure to the Transvaal that full measure of independence to which President Kruger and the burghers aspired. When they had organized the republic on a new and lasting basis, and were strong again because they were united, the President set himself to work to secure a revision of the convention. He was willing to concede commercial and territorial advantages if the Queen's Government would yield rights that were scarcely exercised or had little value. It was a question of names rather than actualities, but names that fastened the badge of dependence on the republic were harder to bear than material sacrifices. There was the right to march troops through Transvaal territory, the right to represent the republic in its external relations, the right to appoint a resident; there was the suzerainty, an invidious word, having no modern legal meaning, only defined as meaning here those specified rights. Paul Kruger went to London again in order to negotiate a new convention with Lord Derby, who had to consider, as before, the opinion of the Cape Afrikanders, which was altogether propitious, for Kruger always knew what ground he was walking on. To renounce any one of the thousand shadowy rights built out of words that rest unheeded in the British archives would not enter into the head of a British minister. The Liberal Secretary of State for the Colonies was willing to make a new convention, to let the Transvaal resume the old name of South African Republic, to expunge the word suzerainty from the preamble, to strike out the right to march troops into the Transvaal, to send a diplomatic agent instead of a resident to Pretoria, and to let the republic have its own diplomacy, subject to the condition that the Queen's Government should have six months in which to disapprove any treaty made with a foreign power. That veto power was all that stood between the Transvaal and absolute independence. The state President was willing to give a substantial quid pro quo in order to take back to Pretoria this convention of 1884.

The national development of the South African Republic was rapid after Kruger had secured this convention. With their own railroad to the nonBritish port of Delagoa Bay the Boers were independent of the railroad and customs tariffs of the Cape and Natal. They secured a title to a port of their own, the Bay of St. Lucia, in Zululand, but the British Government intervened and took it away from them. The discovery of gold in the Transvaal opened the prospect of a national revenue, a thing almost impossible to obtain from farmers alone, and Kruger permitted miners to come in, and gave them a code of mining laws as liberal as those of California. He had controversies with the Foreign Office, of course. His life has been spent in these controversies. The British settlers objected to being commandeered to fight Kaffir rebels. He excused

them from being commandeered. Afterward they wanted franchise privileges. He gave them franchise privileges in matters affecting the mines and the Uitlander community. Eventually they raised a factitious clamor for full burgher rights. Here he had to deal not with the bungling impersonality in Downing Street, with its pigeonholed official knowledge which would make out the Transvaal Boers to be British subjects who had gone beyond the pale of the law to gratify their criminal propensities among savages, but with a man, a practical politician, who could bend multitudes to his will, who was crafty, ingenious, resourceful, careless of the means he used if they only served his end, and that end involved first of all the extinction of the South African Republic. The history of South Africa subsequent to the conclusion of the last London convention is a narrative of the struggle between Paul Kruger and Cecil Rhodes. As Premier of Cape Colony and the accepted leader of the Afrikander party, pretending to pursue the good of all South Africa, but nursing the local jealousies springing from separate material interests, Rhodes sought to win the Cape Dutch and the Free Staters to his side, and actually secured their quiescence and consent when he threw a strangling band of British territory round the Transvaal, checking all expansion to the west or the north. Kruger had established friendship with Lobengula; but Rhodes unearthed a dormant mining concession, given by Lobengula for a supply of firearms to fight the Boers, and on the strength of this obtained a royal charter. The Cape Dutch had now lost faith in Rhodes, so he took the opposite party into his train, and nursed the jealousies of the British in South Africa, especially the rapidly increasing mining community on the Rand, which grew to outnumber the Boers of the Transvaal. He plotted the revolutionary uprising of 1895 and the invasion of the Transvaal by the Chartered Company's troops. This proved a lamentable failure, owing to the watchfulness of Kruger and the unwillingness of the American conspirators and of the workingmen to abolish the republic and accept British rule. If Rhodes had been on hand there would have been no abortive rising, but he had to suffer an eclipse in consequence of the fiasco. To Kruger it gave the opportunity he desired. He armed and fortified the Transvaal. It was four years before the Uitlander agitation could be renewed with the prospect of British official support. In 1899 Mr. Chamberlain and Sir Alfred Milner determined to curb the growing military power and national spirit of the South African Republic, even at the cost of war. Asserting the suzerainty of Great Britain, they assumed the right of the British subjects in the Transvaal to the franchise on a theory that Englishmen are a masterful race,

L

LAWTON, HENRY WARE, American soldier, born in Manhattan, Lucas County, Ohio, March 17, 1843; fell in the battle of San Mateo, Luzon, Philippine Islands, Dec. 19, 1899. He was a student in the Methodist Episcopal College in Fort Wayne, Ind., when the civil war broke out, enlisted in the Ninth Indiana Volunteers April 18, 1861, and was appointed a sergeant. On Aug. 20 he was commissioned first lieutenant in the Thirtieth Indiana Regiment, May 17, 1862, was promoted captain, and Nov. 15, 1864, lieutenant colonel. He was mustered out of the service Nov.

who will not suffer others to rule them, and that such a condition constituted a danger to the peace of South Africa. The policy of President Kruger in regard to the franchise was always clear and simple. He wanted as many new burghers as he could get that would stand by the republic and uphold its laws and institutions. Strangers who came to get money and return after a few years to their own country he did not want; still less Britishers who desired to upset the republic and convert it into a British colony. When the strangers began to flock in the naturalization period was made longer and longer, so as to exclude the elements that could not be assimilated, though all who showed their loyalty to the republic by going out with the burgher commandos to fight native rebels or the Jameson raiders were naturalized immediately by special legislation. The state President offered to prove to Sir Alfred Milner that Englishmen with few exceptions would not renounce their nationality to become Transvaal burghers, and that the majority of the Uitlanders were satisfied with the laws and their administration. The High Commissioner persisted in his demand for a five years' retrospective franchise as an irreducible minimum. The state President offered this if the newly revived claim to suzerainty were abandoned; but Sir Alfred Milner could not agree to retract or even ignore the absurd assumption of Mr. Chamberlain that the preamble of the convention of 1881 was still in force. President Kruger said he would not consent to give his country away to strangers. Thus war resulted between Great Britain and the allied Boer republics—a war that he predicted would stagger humanity.

Ohm Paul, or Uncle Paul, as his people sometimes call him, is vigorous in body and intellect in his old age. He is a typical Boer patriarch, the father of eleven children, who have large families too. He has sold gold-bearing land and other property enough to make him very wealthy-a millionaire in pounds sterling, it is said yet he lives in the utmost simplicity in a modest house. He shares the common Boer disdain for luxury and elegance, as well as for ceremony and formality. The Bible is his constant guide, and from its perusal he has acquired the habit of quoting scriptural texts in support of his political arguments. From the Bible, too, he has learned the graceful art of illustrating his meaning by means of parables and forcible similes. He often mounts the pulpit, and has the reputation of being the best preacher in Pretoria. Tobacco and coffee are his only indulgences. Coffee is indeed the only regale that is usually set before visitors in the President's house, and to keep a plentiful supply ready an annual sum is allotted from the state treasury.

25, 1865, with the brevet rank of colonel. In 1864 Capt. Lawton commanded his regiment. Its service was at the West, and he received the of ficial commendation of his superior officers on several occasions, especially for the manner in which he handled his men in the battle of Nashville. The brigade to which his regiment belonged captured on the two days of battle 7 of the 13 guns secured by the entire division, and 641, or more than half, of the prisoners. The Thirtieth Indiana was very much reduced in strength about this time, and Capt. Lawton car

ried into action in the 7 companies 'composing it probably not more than 250 men. In his official report of the part taken by his regiment in the battle of Franklin (Nov. 30, 1864), which preceded that of Nashville and was a part of the same general movement, he says:

After a very irregular march all night I arrived with the brigade (Third) at Franklin at about 8 A. M. of the 30th inst.; was formed in irregular order, and with arms stacked remained long enough to prepare breakfast. About 11 A. M. we were moved to the right, near the western portion of the city, and were formed by Gen. Grose, commanding brigade, in line of battle. My position was in the front line, joined on the right by the Seventy-fifth Illinois and on the left by the Eighty-fourth Indiana. Skirmishing had already begun on the left of the line, and was now commencing in our front. A line of works was now being rapidly constructed, and by 4 P. M. was completed.

"My regiment being composed mostly of new levies and drafted men, and entirely ignorant of the use of arms, I deemed it necessary to have all spare time given to drill; consequently when the works were finished I was forming for that purpose when the pickets in my front commenced firing very rapidly, and by the time I had formed behind the works were driven in by a charge of the enemy. They fell back immediately in my front and compelled me to hold my fire for the purpose of saving my own men. The enemy received an oblique and very destructive fire from the Ninth Indiana on the right of the line, which checked him until the pickets got under cover of the works, when I immediately opened upon him. The two fires soon became too hot, and he was compelled to fall back, which he did in considerable disorder. Pickets were again sent out in my front and kept up a slow fire, but were not again driven in. Heavy fighting, however, was done on the left, but my command had no part, and nothing further occurred until twelve o'clock that night, when our line was withdrawn and I moved with the brigade across the river without further molestation.

"The conduct of both officers and men was good, without exception, and they have my warmest thanks for the promptness with which they did their part."

After the war Col. Lawton began the study of law at Harvard, but he soon gave it up and accepted an appointment as second lieutenant in the Forty-first United States Infantry, July 28, 1866. He was promoted first lieutenant July 31, 1867, and served as regimental quartermaster from June 1, 1868, to Nov. 11, 1869, when he was transferred to the Twenty-fourth Infantry, with which he served in the same capacity till Jan. 1, 1871. He was then transferred to the Fourth Cavalry, of which he was quartermaster most of the time till March 20, 1879. At that date he was promoted captain, Sept. 17, 1888, was made major and inspector general, and Feb. 12, 1889, lieutenant colonel.

He was commissioned brigadier general May 4, 1898, and placed in command of the Second Division of the Fifth Corps. In the Cuban campaign he led the advance, and his division was the first to land at Daiquiri. He commanded in the action at El Caney, exhibiting great skill and gallantry. After the capture of Santiago he was promoted major general (July 8) and placed in command of the district. In the autumn of that year he returned to the United States, and accompanied President McKinley on his tour of the Southern States. In December he was as

signed to the command of a corps in the Philippines, and he was in active service there through the year 1899 till he was shot dead in battle. A popular subscription for the relief of his widow and children aggregated almost $100,000, which was made over to Mrs. Lawton early in March, 1900.

LIBERIA, a republic on the west coast of Africa, founded by emancipated American slaves, with a Constitution copied after that of the United States. The Senators are elected for four years, and members of the House of Representatives for two years. The President is elected also for two years. The Senate has 8, the House of Representatives 13 members. The President is W. D. Coleman; Vice-President, J. J. Ross. The Government receipts, coming mostly from customs, amount to $158,000 a year. The debt consists of a loan of £100,000 raised in 1871, which with arrears of interest since 1874 amounted in 1897 to £264,500.

The area of Liberia is estimated at 14,360 square miles, with a population of 18,000 Afro-Americans and 1,050,000 Africans of native stock. The Kru and Wey tribes of Liberia supply crews and stokers for many of the steamers engaged in the West African trade, and also fighting men and porters for all expeditions sent into the interior and laborers for plantations in Cameroons and other places along the coast. Monrovia, the capital, has about 5,000 inhabitants.

The coffee grown in Liberia ranks among the best sorts. Other exports are palm oil and palm kernels, rubber, of which a monopoly has been granted to a commercial syndicate, cacao, sugar, arrowroot, ivory, hides, and piassava. The rubber company is composed of Englishmen. England has saved the republic from bankruptcy by financial support, yet has no other commercial interests in the country. Two thirds of the foreign trade is in the hands of Germans. France has advanced the frontier of the Ivory Coast possessions to the Cavally river, which Liberia claimed. Recently a permanent French agent has been sent to Monrovia.

LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1899. A considerable increase was shown in the number of books published during this year compared with 1898. Four hundred and thirty-five more volumes were recorded, the totals standing 5,321 to 4,886. The comparison is favorable with the year 1897 also, when 4,928 books were sent out; but when we consider the records of 1895 and 1896 there is a decided falling away, the figures for those years being respectively 5,469 and 5,703 volumes. A most encouraging fact is that, while in 1898 the books by American authors numbered 2,908, in 1899 3,626 were the production of native writers. But 571 books by English and foreign writers were manufactured in this country (new editions being included in the estimates), as compared with 834 of last year. The importations of books by English authors, bound or in sheets, were 1,124, as against 1,144 in 1898. The most marked increase was in the department of biography and memoirs, where 116 new titles were recorded in excess of those of last year. Seventyeight more juvenile books were also sent out, and 50 more books on the fine arts and illustrated books, than were published in 1898. The largest decrease was in books on theology and religion. These fell to the fifth place in point of numbers, formerly occupied by books for young people. There were also fewer books in medicine, in literary history and miscellany, and in political and social science. History showed no variation to speak of, and more books of travel were written.

Thomas Ryan, of the Mendelssohn Quintette Club, Boston. Prof. Daniel Coit Gilman wrote The Life of James Dwight Dana; E. P. Roe: Reminiscences of his Life, by his sister, Mary A. Roe, found favor with the many admirers of that popular writer of fiction; Novelists in the Warner Classics were sympathetically treated by Henry James, W. T. Trent, and others; Kate Field: A Record, was from Lilian Whiting; and from Thomas Wentworth Higginson we had a collection of portraits of his Contemporaries, including many well-known names. Mrs. Mary Virginia Hawes Terhune (Marion Harland) gave a glimpse of Charlotte Brontë at Home in the series of Literary Hearthstones, following her volume on William Cowper, which initiated the series. Anton Seidl was a costly memorial by his friends, in an edition limited to 1,000 copies; an Autobiograph ical Sketch of Mrs. John Drew, covering nearly seventy years of American dramatic history, had an introduction by her son, John Drew, with biographical notes by Douglas Taylor; and in the Sock and Buskin Biographies we had Julia Marlowe, by John D. Barry. Little Journeys to the Homes of Eminent Painters were, of course, conducted by Elbert Hubbard. Lights and Shadows of a Long Episcopate was the title of reminiscences and recollections by Bishop Henry B. Whipple, the venerable missionary to the Indians of Minnesota, and from John B. Adger we had the record of My Life and Times, 1810-1899, while Under Three Flags, by Rev. George Wharton Pepper, told the story of his life as preacher, captain in the army, chaplain, and consul. Horace Bushnell, Preacher and Theologian, by Theodore Thornton Munger, was the first full and connected account of the work of the eminent Congregational clergyman of Connecticut. A Discourse in Memory of H. Leavitt Goodwin, pronounced in parish church of East Hartford, April 16, 1899, by Dr. Leonard Woolsey Bacon, was published in pamphlet form; The Apostle of the North, Rev. James Evans, with his work among the red men of the Hudson Bay territories, was sympathetically treated by Egerton Ryerson Young; and a Life of Father Hecker, Founder of the Paulists, by Rev. Walter Elliott, had an introduction by Rev. John Ireland. C. F. B. Miel, D. D., in A Soul's Pilgrimage confided his personal and religious experiences. Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam was contributed by Prof. Ephraim Emerton to the Heroes of the Reformation Series; A Life of the Pope (Leo the Thirteenth) was compiled and translated from the most authentic sources by Arthur D. Hall: The College Warden, by Henry A. Fairbairn, M. D., was a biography of his father, Robert Brinckerhoff Fairbairn, warden of St. Stephen's College, Annandale, N. Y.; and Henry D. Stevens sketched A Boy's Life in its spiritual ministry-that of his son. Ingersollia was the title of gems of thought from the lectures, speeches, and conversation of the late Col. Robert G. Ingersoll, which contained a biographical sketch by Thomas W. Handford, and A Vision of War, a patriotic address by Col. Ingersoll, was published with illustrations by H. A. Ogden. A Life for Liberty, a collection of antislavery and other letters of Sallie Holley, edited with introductory chapters by John White Chadwick, was far enough removed in spirit from White and Black under the Old Régime largely biographical, by Mrs. Victoria V. Clayton, widow of Major-Gen. Henry D. Clayton, C. S. A., late President of the University of Alabama. Henry Harisse was the subject of a biographical and bibliographical sketch by Adolf Growoll, in a limited edition. The Last of the Great Scouts conVOL. XXXIX.-27 A

tained the life story of Col. William F. Cody (Buffalo Bill) as told by his sister, Mrs. Helen Cody Wetmore, in line with which was Buffalo Jones' Forty Years of Adventure, a volume of facts gathered from the experience of C. J. Jones, compiled by Henry Inman. Throne Makers was the suggestive title of a volume by William Roscoe Thayer, the author of The Dawn of Italian Independence, and True Stories of Heroic Lives were told of courageous men and women of the nineteenth century by personal acquaintances and eyewitnesses. Vols. VI, VII, and VIII were issued of the National Cyclopædia of American Biography, and Who's Who in America, a biographical dictionary of living men and women of the United States in 1899-1900, was edited by John W. Leonard, proving an exceedingly useful handbook.

Criticism and General Literature.-The first of two volumes which will contain An Introduction to the Methods and Materials of Literary Criticism, by Prof. Charles Mills Gayley and Frederick Newton Scott, was issued during the year and was devoted to The Bases in Esthetics and Poetics; The Authority of Criticism, and Other Essays, came from Prof. William P. Trent; and Some Principles of Literary Criticism were set forth by C. T. Winchester. A General Survey of American Literature was made by Mary Fisher, author of A Group of French Critics, and Blanche Wilder Bellamy reprinted in book form her sketches of Twelve English Poets, with selections from their works, taken as representatives from Chaucer to Tennyson. Wilbur Lucius Cross traced The Development of the English Novel. The Treatment of Nature in the Poetry of the Roman Republic (exclusive of Comedy) was the subject of a thesis submitted by Katharine Allen for the degree of doctor of philosophy in the University of Wisconsin, and published as a Bulletin of that university; Joel Elias Spingarn contributed A History of Literary Criticism in the Renaissance, with special reference to the influence of Italy in the formation and development of modern classicism, to the Columbia University Studies in Literature; while Prof. Albert Elmer Hancock was responsible for an excellent study in historical criticism entitled The French Revolution and the English Poets. A History of English Romanticism in the Eighteenth Century was delivered in the form of lectures by Prof. Henry A. Beers before Yale University, while The Troubadours at Home: Their Lives and Personalities, their Songs and their World, were the theme of two volumes by Justin H. Smith, containing 178 illustrations. French Portraits, by Vance Thompson, bore as subtitle Appreciations of the Writers of Young France. Part I of Romances of Roguery: An Episode in the History of the Novel, by Frank Wadleigh Chandler, was devoted to The Picaresque Novel in Spain, and Contemporary Spain as shown by her Novelists, compiled by Mary Wright Plummer, had an introduction by Edward Everett Hale. Henry Budd published St. Mary's Hall Lectures, and Other Papers. Leo Wiener wrote The History of Yiddish Literature in the Nineteenth Century, and from Israel Abrahams we had Chapters on Jewish Literature, extending over more than seventeen centuries. Richard Burton proffered his Literary Likings. An exceptionally artistic work, both in its subject-matter and manner of presentation, was Fisherman's Luck and some Other Uncertain Things, by Henry Jackson Van Dyke, Jr.; Stories of Lake. Field, and Forest, by Frank A. Bates, recorded the rambles of a sportsman-naturalist; Robert R. McLeod commemorated Nature