person a subject of the country where he is settled, so long as he continues to reside there, and subjects his property to the law of reprisals as a part of the property of the nation, it would seem difficult to maintain that the same consequences would not follow in the case of an open and public war, whether between the adopted and native countries of persons so domiciled, or between the former and any other nation. If then nothing but an actual removal, or a bonâ fide beginning to remove, could change a national character acquired by domicil; and if, at the time of the inception of the voyage, as well as at the time of capture, the property belonged to such domiciled person, in his character of a subject; what was there that did or ought to exempt it from capture by the cruizers of his native country, if at the time of capture he continues to reside in the country of the adverse belligerent? It was contended that a native or naturalized subject of one country who is surprised, in the country where he was domiciled, by a declaration of war, ought to have time to make his election to continue there, or to remove to the country to which he owes a permanent allegiance; and that until such election be made, his property ought to be protected from capture by the cruisers of the latter. This doctrine was believed to be as unfounded in reason and justice, as it clearly was in law. In the first place, it was founded upon a presumption that the person will certainly remove before it can possibly be known whether he may elect to do so or not. It was said, that the presumption ought to be made, because upon receiving information of the war it would be his duty to return home. This position was denied. It was his duty to commit no acts of hostility against his native country, and to return to her assistance when required to do so; nor would any just nation, regarding the mild principles of the law of nations, require him to take arms against his native country, or refuse permission to him to withdraw whenever he wished to do so, unless under peculiar circumstances, which by such removal at a critical period might endanger the public safety. The conventional law of nations was in conformity with these principles. It is not uncommon to stipulate in treaties that the subjects of each party shall be allowed to remove with their property, or to remain unmolested. Such a stipulation does not coerce those subjects to remove or remain. They are left free to choose for themselves; and when they have made their election, may claim the right of enjoying it under the treaty. But until the election is made, their former character continucs unchanged. Until this election is made, if the claimant's property found upon the high seas engaged in the commerce of his adopted country, should be permitted by the cruisers of the other belligerent to pass free under a notion that he may elect to remove upon notice of the war, and should arrive safe; what is to be done, in case the owner of it should elect to remain where he is? For if captured and brought immediately to adjudication, it must, upon this doctrine, be acquitted until the election to remain is made and known. In short, the point contended for would apply the doctrine of relation to cases where the party claiming the benefit of it may gain all and can lose nothing. If he, after the capture, should find it for his interest to remain where he is domiciled, his property embarked before his election was made is safe; and if he finds it best to return, it is safe of course. It is safe, whether he goes or stays. The doctrine producing such contradictory consequences was not only unsupported by any authority, but would violate principles long and well established in the prize courts of England, and which ought not, without strong reasons which may render them inapplicable to America, to be disregarded by the court. The rule, there was, that the character of property during war cannot be changed in transitu by any act of the party, subsequent to the capture. The rule indeed went farther; as to the correctness of which, in its greatest extension, no judgment needed then to be given: but it might safely be affirmed, that the change could not and ought not to be effected by an election of the owner and shipper, made subsequent to the capture, and more especially after a knowledge of the capture is obtained by the owner. Observe the consequences. The capture is made and known. The owner § 18. is allowed to deliberate whether it is his intention to remain a subject of his adopted, or of his native country. If the capture be made by the former, then he elects to become a subject of that country; if by the latter, then a subject of that. Could such a privileged situation be tolerated by either belligerent? Could any system of law be correct which places an individual, who adheres to one belligerent, and down to the period of his election to remove, contributes to increase her wealth, in so anomalous a situation as to be clothed with the privileges of a neutral as to both belligerents? This notion about a temporary state of neutrality impressed upon a subject of one of the belligerents, and the consequent exemption of his property from capture by either, until he has had notice of the war and made his election, was altogether a novel theory, and seemed from the course of the argument to owe its origin to a supposed hardship to which the contrary doctrine exposes him. But if the reasoning employed on the subject was correct, no such hardship could exist; for if before the election is made, his property on the ocean is liable to capture by the cruisers of his native and deserted country, it is not only free from capture by those of his adopted country, but is under its protection. The privilege is supposed to be equal to the disadvantage, and is therefore just. The double privilege claimed seems too unreasonable to be granted."39 The national character of merchants residing in Europe Merchants and America is derived from that of the country in which residing in the east. they reside. In the eastern parts of the world, European persons, trading under the shelter and protection of the factories founded there, take their national character from that association under which they live and carry on their trade: this distinction arises from the nature and habits of the countries. In the western parts of the world, alien merchants mix in the society of the natives; access and intermixture are per 39 Cranch's Rep. vol. viii. p. 253. See other cases of Domicil in the American Prize Courts, Wheaton's Rep. vol. ii. Appendix, Note I. p. 27. mitted, and they become incorporated to nearly the full extent. But in the east, from almost the oldest times, an immiscible character has been kept up; foreigners are not admitted into the general body and mass of the nation; they continue strangers and sojourners, as all their fathers were. Thus, with respect to establishments in Turkey, the British courts of prize, during war with Holland, determined that a merchant, carrying on trade at Smyrna, under the protection of the Dutch consul, was to be considered a Dutchman, and condemned his property as belonging to an enemy. And thus in China, and generally throughout the east, persons admitted into a factory are not known in their own peculiar national character; and not being permitted to assume the character of the country, are considered only in the character of that association or factory. But these principles are considered not applicable to the vast territories occupied by the British in Hindostan; because, as Sir W. Scott observes, "though the sovereignty of the Mogul is occasionally brought forward for purposes of policy, it hardly exists otherwise than as a phantom: it is not applied in any way for the regulation of their establishments. Great Britain exercises the power of declaring war and peace, which is among the strongest marks of actual sovereignty; and if the high and empyrean sovereignty of the Mogul is sometimes brought down from the clouds, as it were, for the purposes of policy, it by no means interferes with the actual authority which that country, and the East India Company, a creature of that country, exercises there with full effect. Merchants residing there are hence considered as British subjects,"40 $19. House of In general, the national character of a person, as neutral or enemy, is determined by that of his domicil; but the pro- trade in the perty of a person may acquire a hostile character, indepen- enemy's dently of his national character, derived from personal residence. Thus the property of a house of trade established in 40 Robinson's Adm. Rep. vol. iii. p: 12. The Indian Chief. country. § 20. of the rule. the enemy's country is considered liable to capture and con- The converse of this rule of the British prize courts, which Converse has also been adopted by those of America, is not extended to the case of a merchant residing in a hostile country, and having a share in a house of trade in a neutral country. Residence in a neutral country will not protect his share in a house established in the enemy's country, though residence in the enemy's country will condemn his share in a house established in a neutral country. It is impossible not to see, in this want of reciprocity, strong marks of the partiality towards the interests of captors, which is perhaps inseparable from a prize code framed by judicial legislation in a belligerent country, and adapted to encourage its naval exertions.4 § 21. National character So also, in general, and unless under special circumstances, the character of ships depends on the national character of of ships. the owner as ascertained by his domicil; but if a vessel is navigating under the flag and pass of a foreign country, she is to be considered as bearing the national character of the country under whose flag she sails: she makes a part of its navigation, and is in every respect liable to be considered as a vessel of the country; for ships have a peculiar character impressed upon them by the special nature of their documents, and are always held to the character with which they 41 Robinson's Adm. Rep. vol. i. p. 1. Susa. Vol. iii. p. 41. The Portland. sina. Wheaton's Rep. vol. i. p. 159. 105. The Friendschaft. The Vigilantia, Vol. ii. p. 255. The 42 Mr. Chief Justice Marshall, Cranch's Rep. vol. viii. p. 253. The Venus, |