Clermont and Trommel. Suppose that there is a mixture of arsenic, antimony, and tin; then the authors would convert the whole into sulphides by treatment with sulphuretted hydrogen, after having acidulated with hydrochloric acid, adding also tartaric acid for the sake of the antimony. When the mixture is saturated it is allowed to stand in a warm place till the odor of sulphuretted hydrogen is no longer perceptible, and is then thrown upon a filter and washed with much care, as the least residue of hydrochloric acid would cause a loss of arsenic in the state of chloride. The whole is then transferred into a flask full of water, and heated to a boil. The reaction is more rapid in a retort through which a current of air is passed. If the quantity of arsenic does not exceed two decigrammes, the distillation of 500 to 600 c. c. of water suffices for the complete dissociation of the sulphides. The residue is then filtered, and the entire quantity of the arsenious acid is found in the filtrate, and determined by the ordinary methods.

Action of Water on Metallic Alloys containing Carbon.-By acting on spiegeleisen with dilute sulphuric acid, Cloez has succeeded in forming bodies resembling the petroleum hydrocarbons. On trying the action of pure water at 100° C. no results were obtained, while at 250° C., with superheated steam, a certain action was perceived, which increased with the temperature, being completed at a dark-red heat. The hydrocarbons, however, were again decomposed. The same author later tested a series of manganese alloys, and found that the best results were obtained by ineans of one containing roughly Mn 85, Fe 6, C 3.5, graphite 4, Si 11. Small portions of this, treated with boiling water, decomposed the latter with the evolution of hydrogen, oily drops being simultaneously formed; and the gas, burning with a luminous flame, showed the presence of hydrocarbons. Another alloy of nearly similar composition gave the following results: the flask contained slightly alkaline water with a mixture of iron and manganese oxides in suspension; the liquid hydrocarbons in the condenser were similar to those previously found, the gases also burning with luminous flames. He has thus shown that water alone at the proper temperature decomposes manganese-iron alloys containing carbon.

Nature of the so-called Elements.-In view of Mr. Norman Lockyer's reported discovery of the composite nature of many of the socalled " elements," it is of interest to note the opinion of a prominent chemical writer touching this matter a short time before the publication of the alleged discovery. Professor Pattison Muir writes:

I think that I am not in error in saying that the minds of most persons are imbued more or less deeply with the idea that nature is ultimately very simple; that could we but grasp the great laws of nature, we should find them extremely simple, although the results of their actions are so wonderfully

complex. This belief appears to be deeply rooted in most minds; yet, if we are to study nature aright, we must set it aside. We must be content to take Nature as she is; i. e., we must do our best to amass facts, and from these we must draw the conclusions warranted by the facts. Now, as our knowledge of Nature extends, do we find that she becomes to us more and more simple? Yes, and No. It has been the maze of tangled facts and to espy the great prinnow and again given to a gifted few to pierce through ciple which binds them into an harmonious whole. But, even in the case of these great generalizations, exact experiment and observation frequently show that little details have been overlooked-that the great simple law is too simple-that there are disorepancies, very small, it is true, but still there they are, demanding an explanation, telling us that our law does not express the whole of nature's facts. Nature appears to be truly infinite; and it is well knowledge of an infinity. This idea of the simplicity to remember that we can never get sensibly nearer a of nature is very apt to lead us to adopt the hypothesis of the non-elementary nature of the elements without sufficient evidence. The idea that all the elements are really compounds of one primary form of matter is a most fascinating idea, it seems to be so much in keeping with the simplicity of nature; it is so symmetrical, it surely must be true. This is just how the old alchemists reasoned; we must absolutely forbid these a priori conclusions to influence us as students of nature. The hypothesis of the compound nature of the elements, of the existence of but one, or even of a few primary forms of matter, fits in with the nebular hypothesis of the formation of the worlds, but have we facts to support it? If one can only come back to facts, we need not fear to start what may appear to be wild and romantic theories.

The outcome of the whole matter is this: we want more knowledge; our facts are few and vague; there is room for almost unlimited work. Ask Nature; trust her: be skeptical of your own interpretations of her answers.

Perhaps even more worthy of note are the remarks made by Mr. Herbert Spencer, some years ago, on the bearings of spectroscopic research on the nature of the elements:

Spectrum analysis yields results wholly irreconoilable with the assumption that the conventionally named simple substances are really simple. Each yields a spectrum having lines varying in number from two to eighty or more, every one of which implies the intercepting of ethereal undulations of a certain order by something oscillating in unison or in harmony with them. Were iron absolutely elementary, it is not conceivable that its atom could intercept ethereal undulations of eighty different orders; though it does not follow that its molecule contains as many separate atoms as there are lines in the spectrum, it must clearly be a complex molecule. Still more clearly is this general implication confirmed by facts furnished by nitrogen, the spectrum of which has two quite different sorts of lines, and changes from one sort to the other as the temperature is varied. The evidence thus gained points to the conclusion that out of some primordial units the so-called elements arise, by compounding and recompounding; just as by the compounding and recompounding of so-called elements there arise oxides and acids and salts.

The Determination of Organic Matter in Water-Analysis.-The important question of determining the organic purity of drinkingwater was the subject of discussion at one of the meetings of the London Chemical Society, when a very elaborate paper was read by Dr. Meymott Tidy. He considered at length the ad

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vantages and disadvantages of the processes in common use, viz., the combustion process, the ammonia process, and the oxygen process. The combustion process is declared to "yield absolutely untrustworthy evidence on which to found an opinion as to the probable source of The ammonia process the organic matter." furnishes results which are not delicate enough to allow the recognition of the finer grades of purity or impurity. But of the oxygen process the author says that its results are constant and extremely delicate, and that it draws a sharp line between putrescent and probably harmless organic matter (a point of the first importance here). By it bad water could never be passed as good. But it is only when the process is properly carried out that such precise results are to be expected. The proper plan of using the oxygen process is as follows: In two carefully cleaned twenty-ounce flasks place 500 septems (a septem 7 grains, or gallon) of the water; to each add 20 septems of dilute (1 in 3) sulphuric acid, and 20 septems of solution of potassic permanganate (2 grains per 1,000 septems). At the same time treat two similar quantities of distilled water in precisely the same manner, and note the exact time at which the permanganate solution was added. The oxygen used up by the water must be determined at the end of one hour and of three hours. To the flasks, after standing the appointed time, add a sufficiency of potassic iodide (1 in 10), and then a standard solution of sodic hyposulphite (54 grains per 1,000 septems), until all of the free iodine is removed (to be determined by adding a few drops of starch solution). By deducting the quantity of oxygen equivalent to the hypo-solution used from that in the quantity of permanganate originally added, we obtain the quantity of oxygen used by the water. The blank experiments with distilled water give the value of the hypo-solution. It is obvious that the samples of water must have a pink tint at the end of the one hour or of the three hours; other wise fresh experiments are to be made with larger doses of permanganate. The only important errors that can arise would be due to the presence of ferrous salts, sulphuretted hydrogen, and nitrites. But the first two would be discovered in the analysis, and by their taste and smell; as for the nitrites, they act immediately on the permanganate solution, and any decolorization taking place during the first five minutes must be due to nitrites and allowed for. It is admitted that permanganate fails to oxidize some substances, as urea; but nevertheless the quantity of oxygen used gives evidence of the relative quantity of matter in the water which is likely to be injurious; and this is precisely the one great object of water-analysis. The quantity of oxygen used during the first hour as compared with that used in the first three hours gives valuable information as to the relative quantities of putrescent, easily oxidizable matter, and of non-putrescent and less easily oxidiz

able matters.

The slight difference in heating power resulting from widely varying percentages of water in the alcohol is worthy of remark.

A New Test for Carbolic Acid.-A very delicate test for carbolic acid has been discovered by Dr. E. W. Davy in molybdic acid dissolved in strong sulphuric acid. When a drop or two of a dilute aqueous solution of carbonic acid is brought in contact with a few drops of the molybdic solution, there is immediately produced a light yellow or yellowish-brown tint, which, passing to a maroon or reddish brown, soon develops a beautiful purple coloration. The application of a gentle heat will hasten the development of the purple reaction; but it will take place, though more slowly, at the ordinary temperature. It is the production of this purple under the circumstances described that constitutes Dr. Davy's test for carbolic acid. The molybdic solution is made by dissolving, with the assistance of a gentle heat, 1 part of molybdic acid in 10 parts by weight of pure concentrated sulphuric acid. The mode of using this reagent is simply to add three or four drops of it to one or two of the liquid under examination, placed on any white por celain or white delf surface. In carrying out this test, however, it will be found most convenient to use a small white porcelain capsule having a handle, which will admit of the application of heat when it may be desirable to hasten the reaction of that agent. So delicate is this test that one small drop of an aqueous solution of carbolic acid (1 per 1,000 by weight), when mixed with three or four drops of the molybdic solution, immediately produces the yellowish-brown effect, which soon passes into a very distinct purple. Nor is this the extreme limit of its application, for the solution affords a certain test even when five times more dilute than above.

Determination of the Heat Value of Fuel.With regard to the question of the heat value of fuel, it has been proved that conclusions from the results of elementary analysis are very uncertain, and also that little reliance can be placed on direct evaporation experiments. The faults of these methods are pointed out by Weyl, who in "Die Chemische Industrie" recommends, as preferable, decomposition of the fuel by dry distillation, and analytical determination of the solid, liquid, and gaseous products of decomposition. In this method the accident of too small a sample being used is avoided, as also too great pulverization and

drying at high temperature, and the decomposing action of atmospheric oxygen, which is therewith connected; and the whole of the coke is weighed, and its carbon, hydrogen, and mineral constituents determined. The water, tar, and gas that are formed are measured, and their heat of combustion ascertained with the aid of data that have been supplied by Favre and Silbermann, and Deville. The final result will, of course, exceed the true combustion value of the coal by the amount of heat equivalent to the work of decomposition into coke, tar, and gas. The decomposition of the coal should be done as quickly as possible, and at a high temperature.

We

A New Explosive.—A new explosive discovered by Professor Emerson Reynolds is compounded of two substances, which can be kept apart without risk, and can be mixed as required to form a blasting and explosive agent. The powder is a mixture of 75 parts of chlorate of potassium with 25 parts of sulphurea, a body discovered by Professor Reynolds some years ago, and which can be obtained in quantity from the waste products of gas-manufacture. The new explosive is a white powder, which can be ignited at a lower temperature than gunpowder, and leaves less solid residuum. Research of Berthelot on the Loss of Oxygen in the Electrolysis of Water.-Faraday first observed the inferior volume of oxygen set free in the electrolysis of water acidulated with sulphuric acid; and, though the fact has been since noticed by every physicist who has employed the voltameter, no satisfactory explanation has hitherto been offered. But now Berthelot has undertaken to measure the loss of oxygen and to determine its cause. give a brief account of his method and results from the "American Journal of Science." That it is not due to the production of hydrogen dioxide by the electrolytic ozone acting on the water is shown by the fact that water and ozone do not combine together directly. Nor does the hypothesis that the oxygen splits into ozone and antozone during electrolysis fit the case, since the relation of the active oxygen existing as gas is to that existing in the liquid so small, only a twentieth part. In one of Berthelot's experiments, there was 2.2 mgrms. active oxygen in the gas collected and 44 mgrms. in the liquid. Moreover, Meidinger has shown that when the sulphuric acid used had a density of 14, the amount of oxygen collected may fall to two thirds of its theoretical value. In Berthelot's experiment, 12.2 c. c. hydrogen was collected in ten minutes, but only 3.6 c. c. of oxygen instead of 6:14. Since the oxidizing body found in the solution occurs only when this is acidulated with sulphuric acid, Berthelot concludes that it is really persulphuric acid; a view which its reactions confirm. Further, oxygen is gradually disengaged from the liquid, reaching in the course of a few hours the theoretical quantity, and even surpassing it. The bearing of these facts upon

the use of sulphuric acid in a voltameter is evident.

CHILI (REPÚBLICA DE CHILE), an independent state of South America, comprised between latitudes 24° and 56° south and longitudes 70° and 74° west. Its boundaries are: Bolivia on the north; the Argentine Republic and Patagonia on the east, from both of which it is separated by the Andes; Cape Horn and the South Pacific on the south; and the same ocean on the west. The southern boundary is contested by the Argentine Government, and the long-pending negotiations between the republics have only resulted in interrupting their diplomatic relations. The treaty agreed upon by Señor Barras Arran, the Chilian Plenipotentiary, has been declared unauthorized by the Minister of Foreign Affairs, and the Chilian Congress has passed a vote of censure on the envoy who had effected a treaty the main object of which was to submit the questions at issue to arbitration. Although a satisfactory settlement has not been reached, and much popular excitement is still apparent in Chili, it is not probable that war will result; and it is yet hoped that bases may be arranged between the Governments for reopening negotiations.

The area of Chili is set down in an official report of 1875 at 124,246 square miles, exclusive of the Magellanic possessions, the extent of which is estimated at 95,753 square miles. The territorial division of the republic and its population were as follows on the 1st of January, 1877: PROVINCES. Atacama Coquimbo.

Population. PROVINCES. 72,776 Biobio...

Population.

79,113

161,145 Arauco..

52,531

Aconcagua.

134,512 Valdivia

31,826

Valparaiso.. Santiago...

180,324 Llanquihue

49,946

Colchagua..
Curicó..
Talca...

Lináres...
Maule..

Nuble..

Concepcion..

119,877 Population in 1865.. 1,819,233

140,214

155,324 Increase in 12 years. 297,545

The President of Chili is Señor Don Aníbal Pinto (elected for five years, and inaugurated September 18, 1876). The Cabinet has been changed, and is now composed of the following ministers, who are reported in favor of more satisfactory relations with the Argentine _Republic: Interior, Dr. Belisario Prats; Foreign Affairs, Señor Don José Alfonso; Finance (vacant); Justice, Public Worship, and Public Instruction, Señor Don Domingo Santa María; War and Navy, Señor Don Cornelio Saavedra. For the Council of State, the courts of justice, and the Church, reference may be made to the "Annual Cyclopædia" for 1877. There being at present no Chilian Minister accredited to the United States, the functions of Chargé d'Affaires are exercised by Señor Don Eduardo Vigil. The Chilian Consul at New York is C. R. Flint, Esq. The Honorable Thomas Osborn is Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of

the United States, and D. J. Williamson, Esq., Consul-General at Valparaiso.

The standing army is composed (1878) of 8 generals, 7 colonels, 29 lieutenant-colonels, 38 majors, 99 captains, 20 adjutants-major, and 197 lieutenants-398 officers-and the following corps: five battalions of infantry, 2,000 men; two regiments of cavalry, 700; one regiment of artillery, 616; total, 3,316. Vacancies occurring in the regular army are filled by volunteers from the National Guard, but the regular strength of the army, fixed by the law of 1875 at 3,573, is seldom reached. The strength of the National Guard is as follows: infantry, 3,546 men; cavalry, 1,288; artillery, 1,285; total, 6,119 men. A general rising of the Indians being apprehended, troops have been sent to the frontier to protect the new colonies. There has also been lately a great increase of brigandage in the interior of the republic, and stringent measures will be required to extirpate it.

The navy comprises ten vessels, as follows:

There are in the navy 3 rear-admirals, 1 first-class, 9 second-class, and 13 third-class captains, 46 lieutenants, 48 coast-guard, and 54 surgeons and engineers; 1 naval architect, 1 almoner, and 2 first-class pilots. There is also a battalion of marines, commanded by 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 4 captains, and 19 lieutenants, and a battalion of marine artillery of 432 men, commanded by 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 3 adjutants-major, 6 captains, and 19 lieutenants; besides the battalion of marine artillery at Valparaiso forming a part of the guardia civil, and comprising 808 men, officered by 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 6 captains, and 24 lieutenants.

The revenue of Chili for the year 1876 (estimated at $24,561,670, including a foreign loan of $4,742,564 and a home loan of $3,050,000) amounted to $23,492,456, as follows:

amount to $17,400,000, including the interest on the new loan. The total estimated revenue is $14,087,000, leaving a deficit of $3,500,000, which may be reduced to $2,200,000 by the balance of $500,000 of the loan, and by proposed reductions in the expenses of the Government. The foreign debt on January 1, 1877, was set down at $38,809,000, comprising seven loans with interest ranging from 3 to 7 per cent., and the home debt at $10,780,875, with interest varying from 3 to 8 per cent. The railway debt included in the total of $49,589,875 amounted to $35,000,000.

The banks have been authorized by the Government to suspend specie payments until the 31st of August, 1879. Their emission of paper money, to the amount of $15,600,000, is guaranteed by the state, and is made redeemable in coin at the above date. Large amounts of gold and silver have been exported to meet accounts abroad, the balance of trade having been against the country for several years past, owing to the failure in wheat crops and the decline in the price of copper. It is known that not more than $5,000,000 in bullion and coin remain in the country, and a very depressed feeling is prevalent in financial and commercial circles. The financial system of the country is based upon customs duties and the Government monopoly of tobacco. The income tax, the succession tax, and taxes on real and personal property, deemed necessary to set the country on a sounder financial basis, are vehemently opposed by the deputies in Congress, who are mostly men of large property, or capitalists. The custom-house returns give the receipts for 1875 and 1876 at $7,801,354 and $7,422,790 respectively; and a decrease of $1,000,000 in the importations of 1877 will still further reduce this main source of the republic's revenues.

The subjoined table exhibits the value of the foreign commerce of Chili from 1873 to 1877, inclusive:

The total movement of tonnage during the

year was:

$321,115 20 269,020 21

$285,820 12

Tons.

411,179 16

629,906 89

628,924 17

Arrivals, coasters..

2,421,621

432,285 10

558,275 95

8,761,082

467,299 47

553,890 85

840,385 07

Departures, coasters....

2,323,110

3,743,577

423,845 65 418,447 58 561,140 30 $2,961,870 10 $3,339,615 12 $877,745 02

It is somewhat remarkable that while in California and Australia the mining interest is declining and more attention is given to agriculture, the contrary is taking place in Chili, where the mining exports have been increased by $3,407,000 in 1877 as compared with 1876, and a decrease of $1,356,000 is reported in the exports of agricultural products. The exportation of minerals for 1877 shows a falling off of $5,172,000, owing to the low price of copper in Europe. Many of the smelting works have been closed. Nitrate deposits of considerable extent have lately been discovered in the desert of Atacama, within the Chilian territory; and, although the nitrate is not of a very high quality, it is thought that it may be profitably produced in large quantity, the principal obstacle having been removed, by the discovery of water on the Guillermo Matta claim. An American company is erecting extensive works at Catapilco, about forty miles north of Valparaiso, for extracting gold from placer mines, and they hope to realize an annual profit of a million dollars during fifty years. Commercial statistics for 1877 give the following detailed statement of vessels entered at all the ports of the republic, and the total movement of tonnage in the foreign and coasting trade:

Total tonnage of arrivals and departures........ 7,504,609 Among the competing nations, a marked difference appears in these figures between England and the United States. The tonnage under the British flag exceeds all others combined.

The navigation law, sanctioned by Congress on June 24th, came into force on September 25th. The following articles affect foreign ship. ping in the ports of the republic:

ART. 41. No national vessel shall sail for a foreign port without being previously surveyed as to her shall apply to foreign vessels of which there may exconditions of seaworthiness. The same regulation ist doubts as to their state of seaworthiness, the sanction of the consul, should there be one, to whom due notice shall be given, being previously obtained. ART. 42. Vessels employed in the coasting trade, whether national or foreign, shall be surveyed each year if sailing vessels, and each six months if steam

ers.

ART. 46. The maritime sanitary officials shall not deliver the bills of health if the captains of vessels, national or foreign, do not present the crew list, signed by the maritime authority, or by the respective consular agent.

ART. 47. These requisites complied with, the maritime authority may still, with the knowledge and consent of the administrative authority, detain any vessel which may be found badly stowed, or of which there may be reason to fear a disaster. Disputes shall be settled finally by a commission of survey. Foreign vessels, merely calling at the ports, or sailing direct to a foreign port, shall be exempt from the foregoing regulation. If, by manifest cause of bad stowage or overloading, the vessel should be wrecked, or suffer a serious casualty, the maritime authority who permitted her departure shall be held responsible for his neglect. Any captain who shall proceed to sea contrary to the orders of the maritime authority shall be punished by imprisonment (presidio mayor en su grado mínimo), and shall in future be disqualified from taking any charge in the national marine.

ART. 108. Captains of vessels, either national or foreign, shall be obliged to deliver to the maritime authority, under receipt, and at the time of the first visit, all correspondence, written or printed, which they may have on board, proceeding either from the coast or abroad, for places in the republic. Such only shall be excepted as may be addressed to the consignee of the said vessel, provided that the weight does not exceed one hundred and fifty grammes. The same obligation shall apply to the other employees of the vessel and to the passengers. Transgressors of this regulation shall incur a fine equal to quadruple the postage of the correspondence, or the payment of twenty-five dollars if the quadruple should be less. The maritime officials shall not give pratique to vessels until the correspondence carried on board shall have been duly delivered.

ART. 110. Sailing vessels or steamers, national or foreign, intended to carry passengers between ports in Chili, shall not admit more passengers than may be conveniently accommodated; and the maritime authorities of the port may prevent the sailing of these vessels, whenever they shall have embarked a greater number of passengers than they can carry, with due regard to the space, security, seaworthi