place. These elections, which occur every second year, are arranged so that the arrondissements which elect senators do not elect representatives and vice versa. This time various arrondissements whose representation has been recently increased had to elect also four additional senators and eight additional members of the Chamber. Till now the proportion of parties was in the Senate thirty-three Catbolics and twenty-nine Liberals, and in the Chamber sixty-eight Catholics and fifty-six Liberals. The result of the election was a complete surprise to every one. The Liberal party obtained a majority in the Chamber of ten and in the Senate of six. In the arrondissement of Ghent, the defection of which in 1870 from the Liberal cause was the occasion of the accession of the Clericals to power, the Clericals were completely defeated. In consequence of this result, the Ministry resigned, and M. Frère-Orban, one of the leaders of the Liberals in the Chamber, was intrusted with the formation of a new

Cabinet, which was constituted as follows: M. Frère-Orban, President of the Council and Minister of Foreign Affairs; M. Bara, Minister of Justice; M. Van Humbeek, Minister of Public Instruction; M. Sainctelette, Minister of Public Works; M. Graux, Minister of Finance; M. Rolin Jacquemeyns, Minister of the Interior; and General Rénard, Minister of War. An extraordinary session of the Chambers was opened on July 23d. M. Rogier, a member of the Belgian Congress of 1830, was elected President of the Chamber of Representatives. On August 7th the Chamber adopted a bill for the creation of a Ministry of Public Instruction.

The twenty-fifth year after the marriage of the King and Queen was celebrated in Brussels from August 22d to the 25th. All the large cities of the kingdom had sent deputations to express their congratulations. Among the presents was a crown and a lace train of great value presented by the women of the kingdom, and a diadem presented by the city of Brussels.

The communal elections took place on October 29th, and likewise resulted in favor of the Liberals. Of the nine provincial capitals, only one, Bruges, remains in the hands of the Catholic party. Among the towns in which the Liberals have this year gained the ascendancy are Malines, Eeclo, Tongern, and Marche. They also retain their endangered majority in Louvain, Tournay, Charleroi, and Ypres. In some places, however, as in Liége, the Catholic minorities have somewhat increased in strength.

The Chambers were opened by the King on November 12th. The King, in the speech from the throne, said that at no period had the relations between Belgium and other states been more influenced by feelings of esteem and confidence than at the present time. On the edu

cational question the King said that the instruction given at the expense of the state should be placed under the exclusive control of the civil authorities, whose mission would be to imbue the young with respect for the laws and institutions of their country. Various bills would be presented to the Chambers on this subject. Proceeding to speak of the army, he showed that its organization was still incomplete, and mentioned the necessity for the creation of a national reserve. The civic guard should also be efficiently armed. Alluding to the state of trade, the King expressed the hope that the industrial crisis was now past, and stated that the Government was endeavoring to find means to alleviate the distress of those affected by it. Public works were being ac

tively pushed forward. With regard to the financial situation, the King said that the equilibrium of the budget had ceased to be assured, and the present estimates were not altogether of a favorable character. The Treasury also had contracted considerable engagements, for which it would be necessary to provide. The Government would submit proposals to the Chambers for effecting further reform in the electoral law.

The association of the Belgian Free Churches has grown up out of the Belgian Evangelical Society, which was founded in 1837. After existing for several years under this name, the Free Churches adopted an ecclesiastical organization better fitted to promote the development of their work. They accepted the Presbyterian form of government, and chose as the standard of their faith the old Belgic Confession of the sixteenth century, with the article which refers to the interference of the civil power in matters of faith omitted. The Synod for 1878 met at Brussels July 16th. Twenty churches, French and English, were represented, besides which visiting members were present from the Waldensian and the Scotch and English Presbyterian churches, and churches in Holland. Pastor Cacheux, of Lize-Seraing, presided. A resolution was passed to the effect that a greater prominence should be given to the decided views entertained by the church on the subject of the separation of church and state. A meeting was held in connection with the Evangelical Alliance, which was also attended by ministers of the National Church; and the annual public meeting was addressed by deputies from foreign churches. The financial report announced a deficiency of $3,600 on a necessary annual expenditure of $25,000.

BERARDI, GIUSEPPE, Cardinal-priest of the title of Saints Marcellino and Pietro, born September 28, 1810, died April 6, 1878. He was the son of a poor family of Ceccano, a village in the former Pontifical States near the frontier of Naples. He received his first education in the diocesan seminary of Ferentino, and subsequently attended the Collegio Romano. At the Papal university della Sapienza he studied law and theology, supporting himself in the mean while by giving private lessons. Feeling no vocation for the priesthood, he practiced law for several years and married; but after losing his wife and only daughter he was appointed in 1844 by Gregory XVI. prelate and judge of the supreme tribunal of the Consulta. In 1845 he became judge of the Apostolic Chamber for civil, ecclesiastical, and criminal affairs. In 1848 Berardi followed Pius IX. to Gaëta, where he became the devoted and zealous partisan of Antonelli. At the instigation of Antonelli, Pius IX. in 1849 intrust ed Berardi with the difficult task of restoring the Papal authority in the recovered States of the Church. Supported by Neapolitan and Spanish troops, Berardi displayed an astonishing activity, and reestablished Papal rule in

the neighborhood of Rome and in a part of the Marches and of Umbria. In August of the same year he was added to the Commission of Three Cardinals to govern the dominion of St. Peter until the return of the Pope; and on the return of the latter to Rome, Berardi was commissioned to receive him at the frontier. In 1856 he was by the influence of Antonelli appointed substitute of the Secretary of State, and from that time until his elevation to the cardinalate he always took a prominent part in the temporal and ecclesiastical affairs of the Holy See. In 1860 he fell for some time into disgrace, as his brother Filippo was charged with being at the head of a conspiracy against the temporal power of the Pope, and with having secretly delivered to the enemy important public documents. By the influence of Antonelli he was, however, soon restored to favor, and designated to the important position of Apostolic Nuncio at St. Petersburg. For this purpose he was obliged to take holy orders; and being consecrated in immediate succession priest and bishop, he was appointed Archbishop of Nicea in partibus. As the relations between Russia and Rome remained unfriendly, he never entered upon his functions as nuncio; but on March 13, 1868, he was appointed cardinal-priest. Much against his own wish, he was appointed Minister of Public Works, Commerce, and Fine Arts, which position he retained until the overthrow of the temporal power of the Pope. When he was forced to leave the Quirinal Palace in 1870 he took up his abode with his brother Filippo; and, as the latter had the reputation of being an outspoken partisan of Italian unity and an intimate friend of the statesmen Nicotera and Mancini, Cardinal Berardi again awakened the suspicions that he was not himself in full harmony with the policy of the Holy See.

In

BERNARD, CLAUDE, one of the greatest physiologists of the present century, born July 12, 1813, at St. Julien, in the department of the Rhône, died February 10, 1878. On account of the poverty of his family, he found it very difficult to finish his classical studies. After living for a short time with a pharmacist in Villefranche-sur-Saône, he went to Paris. 1841 he became a pupil of the learned physiologist Dr. F. Magendie, who had a great influence upon the progress of his studies; and in 1843 he graduated as a doctor of medicine. Until 1853 he chiefly studied surgery, but from that year he relinquished surgery in order to devote himself entirely to the experimental study of physiology. In 1854 the chair of Professor of General Physiology was specially created for him at the Sorbonne; in the same year he was made a member of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1861 of the Academy of Medicine; in 1855 he succeeded his master Magendie as Professor of Experimental Medicine in the Collége de France; and in 1868 he became Professor of General Physiology at the Museum. Four times he received from the

Academy the great prize of physiology: first in 1849 for his work "Recherches sur les Usages du Pancréas"; again in 1851 and 1853; and finally in 1872 for his work "De la Physiologie générale." In 1868 he became in the place of Flourens a member of the French Academy, and in 1869 he was appointed a member of the Senate. On the day following his death the Chamber of Deputies, on motion of the Minister of Public Instruction, Bardoux, unanimously voted an appropriation of 10,000 francs for a public funeral of the distinguished scholar.

BIGELOW, GEORGE TYLER, an American jurist, died in Boston April 12, 1878. He was born at Watertown, Mass., October 6, 1810, graduated at Harvard College in 1829, and began the practice of law in Middlesex County in 1834. He served as captain of the New England Guards, was afterward colonel of an infantry regiment in Boston, and in 1844 was chosen an aide to Governor Briggs. He was a member of the lower branch of the Massachusetts Legislature from 1840 to 1844, and of the upper in 1847 and 1848. He became a common-pleas judge in 1849, and in 1850 was appointed an associate justice of the Supreme Court. In 1860 he succeeded Lemuel Shaw a chief justice, which position he held till 1868, when he resigned it. From this time until January, 1878, he served as actuary of the Massachusetts Hospital Life Insurance Company. In 1868 Judge Bigelow was elected one of the overseers of Harvard University, and in 1873 he was a member of the Commission for the Revision of the Boston City Charter.

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tin County, N. C., February 4, 1811. After receiving a common-school education he began to practice law in 1831. He was elected a member of the State Constitutional Convention in 1835, to the lower branch of the Legislature in 1840 and 1842, and to the State Senate in 1844. He was chosen a member of Congress in 1845, and served one term. He was one of the three commissioners appointed in 1850 to revise the State statutes, and who prepared the Revised Code of North Carolina, which went into operation in 1854. In the latter year he was again elected to the State Senate, and in 1854 was chosen United States Senator, which position he resigned in 1858 to accept the judgeship of the United States District Court of North Carolina under an appointment from President Buchanan. He held this position until the war broke out, and in May, 1861, he was elected to the State Convention which met in Raleigh and passed the ordinance of secession. After the war he resumed the practice of the law, and subsequently engaged in the commission business at Norfolk, Va. In the United States Senate he served on the Committees on Finance and Private Land Claims.

BOLIVIA (REPÚBLICA DE BOLIVIA), an independent state of South America, lying between latitudes 10° and 24° south, and longitudes 57° 25′ and 70° 30′ west. It is bounded on the north and northeast by Brazil, on the south by the Argentine Republic and Chili, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean and Peru.

The republic is divided into nine departments, which, with their areas in square miles, capitals, and population (exclusive of 250,000 savage Indians), are approximately as follows:

Cochabamba..

Capitals.

70,178 150,000

.....

70,200

Trinidad

72,793

26,808

478,717

48,051

21,600

54,297

144,077

176,088

Santa Cruz... Tarija..

The population of the foregoing cities is set down by a European authority as follows: Cobija, 2,380; Trinidad, 4,170; Sucre, 23,979; Cochabamba, 40,678; La Paz, 76,372; Oruro, 7,980; Potosí, 22,580; Santa Cruz, 9,780; Tarija, 5,680. But as these figures are taken from Lieutenant-Colonel J. Ondarza's map and tables of population published in 1859, and no allowance is made for the increase of population, which the same authorities estimate at 30 per cent., it is presumed the table will be found approximately correct.

The departments are subdivided into 37 districts, and these into 45 provinces. Only one fourth of the population is purely white, and the aboriginal is by far the most numerous ele

Population.

2,500

4,835

26,624

44,908

83,092

8,492

25,774

11,786

8,875

ment, particularly in the departments of La Paz and Tarija.

The President of the Republic is General Hilarion Daza (installed May 4, 1876), and the Ministers are: Interior and Foreign Affairs, Dr. D. Martin Laura; Finance and Public Works, Dr. M. Salvatierra; Justice and Public Worship, Dr. J. M. del Carpio; War, General Don Manuel Oshon Jofre. By the Constitution of Bolivia, drawn up by Simon Bolivar in 1826 and modified in 1828, 1831, and 1863, the executive power is vested in a President elected for a term of four years, who appoints a

Vice-President and the ministers. The legislative authority is vested in a Congress of two Chambers, the Senate and House of Represen

tatives, both elected by popular suffrage. The ministers are liable to impeachment before Congress. The capital of the republic is La Paz.

The Bolivian Consul-General in New York is Señor J. Pol, and the Consul in San Francisco Señor F. Herrera. The American Minister of the United States in Bolivia is the Hon. R. M. Reynolds, residing at La Paz. The Metropolitan Archbishop is Dr. P. J. Puy y Solona (elevated in 1861), and there are the following bishops: La Paz, Dr. Juan de Dios Bosque (1874); Cochabamba, F. M. del Granado (1872); and Santa Cruz de la Sierra, F. X. Rodriguez (1870).

No statement of the Bolivian finances has been published since 1875, for which year the revenue was set down at $2,929,574, the expenditures at $4,505,504, and the national debt at £3,400,000, including Colonel Church's loan of £1,700,000 for the construction of the Madeira and Mamoré Railway. The revenue is derived from customs duties on imports, from the mines and other state property, and from a tax levied upon the Indian population yielding nearly one half of the total receipts. The imports in 1875 amounted to $5,750,000, and the exports to $5,000,000. The exports consisted mainly of guano, leather, Peruvian bark, tin, and silver. The duties on goods imported through Peruvian ports were collected by the Peruvian Government, and a sum averaging $500,000 was paid annually to Bolivia; but negotiations for a renewal of the custom-house treaty between the two countries not having been taken up by the Republic of Peru, in spite of the urgent requests of the Bolivian envoy, Dr. Zoilo Flores, the Government of Bolivia has issued a decree restoring the Bolivian custom-houses. It is thought that the early completion of the Madeira and Mamoré Railway, which will open navigation to the very center of Bolivia through the Amazon and its tributaries, will free the country from the customhouse tutelage of Peru, and strengthen the good relations now existing between Brazil and Bolivia.

The only railways in operation are the lines from La Paz to the port of Aygacha on Lake Titicaca (60 miles), and from Antofagasta to Salar (38 miles). Some progress has been made in the construction of the Madeira and Mamoré Railway by the American contractors, the Messrs. Collins, of Philadelphia. Seven miles of the road were already in operation, and materials were on the ground for fifty miles additional; but, owing to unexpected delay in the final decision of the English courts in regard to the Bolivian loan and to the contract with the Public Works Company, work had been temporarily suspended. To Bolivia this enterprise promises national life, as without it it can not profitably export its abundant and valuable products. The trade and revenues of the republic have not increased since 1825, although the population has nearly treb

He

led since that date, while the neighboring countries have advanced in wealth and civilization. BOUTON, NATHANIEL, died in Concord, N. H., June 6, 1878. He was born at Norwalk, Conn., June 20, 1799, and was graduated from Yale College in 1821, and from the Andover Theological Seminary in 1824. He was pastor of the First Congregational Church and Society in Concord, N. H., from 1825 to 1867; president of the New Hampshire Historical Society from 1842 to 1844; trustee of Dartmouth College from 1840 to 1877, and secretary of the Board of Trustees from 1845 to 1873; and president of the New Hampshire Missionary Society from 1852 to 1858. also served as vice-president of the American Home Missionary Society and director of the New Hampshire Bible Society, and was a corporate member of the New England Historical and Genealogical Society, and of the Maine, the Wisconsin; and the Pennsylvania Historical Societies. Besides numerous sermons, addresses, and articles in periodicals, he published "Help to Prayer" (1832), "Sinners Directed," abridged from Baxter (1832), "Memoir of Mrs. Elizabeth Macfarland (1839), "History of Concord, N. H." (1856), Collections of New Hampshire Historical Society," Vols. VII. and VIII. (1850-'56), and "Lovewell's Great Fight at Pigwacket" (1861).

At an

BOWLES, SAMUEL, an American journalist, died January 16, 1878, in Springfield, Mass., where he was born February 9, 1826. early age he was employed in the office of the "Springfield Republican," a weekly paper which his father had started in 1824, and of which he was proprietor. In 1844 he persuaded his father to publish a daily paper, on which the son, though but a boy, performed an important part of the editorial labors. His political articles soon attracted attention, and his letters from the South, where he was sent for his health in the winter of 1845, were widely read. Young Bowles soon became the virtual head of the paper, and conducted it with enterprise and ability until the time of his death. În 1865 he made a journey to the Pacific coast with a large company, including Mr. Schuyler Colfax. The letters written on this journey to the "Springfield Republican were republished in a volume called "Across the Continent." In 1869 he published "Our New West" and "The Switzerland of America," in the latter of which were described the mountain scenery and the natural parks of Colorado. Mr. Bowles was an industrious, fearless journalist, and not only made the "Springfield Republican a leading journal of New England, but during the war und afterward gave to it a national reputation.

BRAZIL (IMPERIO DO BRAZIL), an empire of South America, and the only monarchy in the New World, extending from latitude 5° 10' north to 33° 46' south, and from longitude 34° 47' to 74° 7' west. It is bounded north by the United States of Colombia, Venezuela, the