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quest for the transfer of the Indian Bureau seemed to be based particularly upon the assumption, very industriously circulated, that the Indian civil service was responsible for all the wars. It was said that the Indian agent steals the Indian supplies; that the Indians at last grew desperate, and there were wars. That was not the fact at all. There was scarcely a single instance where it was the fact. The real cause of almost all of our Indian wars was the breaking of treaties and encroachments upon the lands and rights of the Indian by the white man. Then, also, it must be considered that the Indians themselves were not angels, and that they had in some instances been guilty of outrages which had provoked the resentment of the whites.

The report of the commission will not be made until after the commencement of 1879.

At the same time that this joint committee was ordered, another was directed by Congress to examine and report on the reorganization of the army. (See CONGRESS, U. S.) This work was completed before the opening of the session of 1878-79. After making very extensive investigations, the committee report a codification of all laws relating to the army into one act. The main features kept in view in the plan of reorganization are the disposition and use of the army in time of peace as a frontier and Indian police, and, second, its disposition as a nucleus of offensive and defensive force for foreign war. The number of the rank and file is limited to 20,000 men, exclusive of the signal corps. The system of organization of the artillery branch of the service is changed from regimental formation to batteries or companies. The artillery arm is consolidated with the ordnance corps. The Quartermaster-General's and Commissary-General's staffs are consolidated under the control of the Quartermaster's Department, and the staff corps as a distinctive branch of the service is abolished. The engineer and medical corps retain their present distinctive organization. The Adjutant-General's, QuartermasterGeneral's, Inspector-General's, and PaymasterGeneral's staffs are done away with, and the system of interchangeability of line and staff officers substituted, similar to the European system of organization, the object being to give all the officers of the army an opportunity of perfecting themselves in a practical knowledge of the several branches of service in the army. In order to reduce the number of officers, it is provided that there shall be no more promotions or appointments until the number of general and line officers is reduced to a certain number. The offices of general and lieutenant-general will cease with the decease of the present incumbents. The number of majorgenerals and brigadier-generals is to be reduced to the lowest point. No change is made in the West Point Military Academy, and the general provisions of the bill look to the elimination eventually of all officers of the army who have not received a thorough military education. The work of surveys and triangulations is to be exclusively under the control of the army. The army regulations, which

have not been revised since 1863, are to be thoroughly examined, and a new series adopted, to become a part of the eventual work of reorganization. The important feature of the bill is the abolishment of a staff as a distinctive corps of the army, and the interchangeability of the line and staff for the offices in the several departments, excepting the engineer corps. Better provision is to be made for the education of the cavalry branch of the service, giving it equality in this respect with the ordnance and artillery branch, and additional means will be secured for training officers in the higher branches of their profession.

The action of Congress on this report will take place before the close of the session, on March 4, 1879.

By reference to the proceedings of Congress, the animated debate of that body on the amendment to the army bill forbidding the use of the army as a posse comitatus will be found. The measure was deemed worthy of notice by the Secretary of War, who describes its practical operation:

The fifteenth section of the act of Congress of June 18, 1878, provides that

From and after the passage of this act it shall not be lawful to employ any part of the army of the United States as a posse comitatus or otherwise, for the purpose of executing the laws, except in such cases and under such circumstances as such employment of said force may be expressly authorized

by the Constitution or by act of Congress.

In

provision be repealed or that the number of cases in In my judgment it is important either that this which the use of the army shall be "expressly authorized" be very much enlarged. In many portions of our Western Territories, and even in some Portions of the newer States, a resolute desperado, with a few followers, can defy the officers of the law and any local posse that can be organized. During the year numerous attacks have been made upon the mail-coaches in New Mexico and Arizona for purposes of robbery and plunder; and while I have States may be defended by the use of troops, I have been of the opinion that the mails of the United been obliged to give instructions that they can not, without disregarding the act of Congress, be employed to aid the officers of the law in capturing the robbers after they have committed the crime. In doing so, they would act as a posse comitatus, and this is nowhere by law " expressly authorized." the new and sparsely populated regions of the West, to say to robbers and thieves that they shall not be taken on any writ unless the sheriff and his local posse are able to capture them without aid from the soldiers, is almost to grant them immunity from arrest. In those new regions the army is the power chiefly relied upon by the law-abiding people for protection, and chiefly feared by the lawless classes. Numerous instances might be cited, but the recent occurrences in Lincoln County, New Mexico, constiin command of the troops in that vicinity to aid the tute a striking example. The inability of the officer officers of the law in making arrests was one of the principal causes which led to the most disgraceful archy. This state of things continued until a case scenes of riot and murder, amounting in fact to ancould be made for declaring the district in insurrec tion, after which a proclamation of warning was issued by the President, when the troops were called into action and at once restored quiet. I am clearly to employ the national forces in aid of the process of the opinion that the President should be left free of the Federal courts whenever he shall deem it necessary; but if such use is to be limited to cases

where, as declared by the act above quoted, it "is expressly authorized by the Constitution or by acts of Congress," then it is respectfully submitted that Congress should give very careful attention to the enumeration and specification of the cases in which such use of troops is to be permitted.

The proclamation of the President, spoken of by the Secretary of War, in which Lincoln County, New Mexico, was declared in a state of insurrection, and an opening thus made for the use of the army in the suppression of civil disturbances, was as follows:

Whereas, It is provided in the laws of the United States that whenever, by reason of unlawful combination or assembly of persons, or a rebellion against the authority of the Government of the United States, it shall become impracticable, in the judgment of the President, to enforce the ordinary course of judicial proceedings or the laws of the United States within any State or Territory, it shall be lawful for the President to call forth the militia of all the States, and to employ such part of the land and naval force as he may deem necessary, to enforce the execution of the laws, or to suppress such rebellion in whatever State or Territory thereof the laws of the United States may be forcibly opposed, or the execution thereof forcibly obstructed; and

Whereas, It has been made to appear to me that, by reason of unlawful combinations and assemblages of persons in arms, it has become impracticable to enforce, by the ordinary course of judicial proceedings, the laws of the United States within the Territory of New Mexico, especially within Lincoln County, and that the laws of the United States have been therein forcibly opposed and the execution thereof forcibly resisted; and

Whereas, The laws of the United States require that whenever it may be necessary, in the judgment of the President, to use the militia for the purpose of the faithful execution of the laws of the United States, he shall forthwith, by proclamation, command such insurgents to disperse and retire peaceably to the irrespective abodes within a limited time: Now, therefore, I, Rutherford B. Hayes, President of the United States, do hereby admonish all good citizens of the United States, and especially of the Territory of New Mexico, against aiding, countenaucing, abetting, or taking part in such unlawful proceedings; and I hereby warn all persons engaged

in or connected with said obstruction to the laws to

disperse and return peaceably to their respective abodes on or before October 13th, instant. In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed. Done at the city of Washington, this 7th day of October, in the year of our Lord 1878, and of the independence of the United States the one hundred

and third.

R. B. HAYES.

By the President: F. W. SEWARD, Acting Secretary

of State.

The following is the letter of the Secretary of War addressed to General Sherman relative to the above proclamation:

'

WAR DEPARTMENT, WASHINGTON, October 8th. Y GENERAL: The President has issued a proclamation, declaring that by reason of unlawful obstruction, combinations, and assemblages of persons, the laws of the United States within the Territory of New Mexico, and especially in Lincoln County therein, can not be enforced by the ordinary course of judicial proceedings, and commanding the persons comprising such combinations or assemblages to disperse and repair peaceably to their respective abodes before 12 o'clock, noon, on the 18th instant. This proclamation is preliminary to the employment of the troops of the United States to preserve the peace

and enforce the laws in case the disturbances and unlawful combinations continue after the time named. The President therefore directs that you instruct the proper military officer that after the time above mentioned has expired he will proceed to disperse by military force all such unlawful combinations or ashe will, by the use of such force, and so long as resemblages of persons within said Territory, and that sistance to the laws shall continue, aid the Governor and authorities of the Territory in keeping the peace and enforcing the laws. I have the honor to remain your obedient servant, GEORGE W. McCRARY, Secretary of War. To General W. T. SHERMAN.

The orders were accordingly given to the Brigadier-General commanding the Military Department of Missouri to employ, if necessary to enforce the conditions announced by the President, the forces under his command at the time and for the purposes indicated.

During the prevalence of the yellow fever in the Southern States, the War Department sent forward rations, tents, and some medicines to the destitute in New Orleans, Memphis, Grenada, and Chattanooga.

For the improvement of rivers and harbors, for the promotion of the general commerce of the country, the sum of $5,015,000 was granted for 1877, nothing for 1878, and $5,015,000 was asked for 1879.

The Quartermaster's Department moved during the year 79,260 passengers, 11,400 beasts, and 109,261 tons of military material. There are in the office of the Quartermaster-General twenty four thousand claims and accounts unsettled, calling for $13,000,000.

The work upon the seacoast defenses, owing to the lack of appropriations, has been limited to the care and preservation of the works. The system governing the construction of the works of defense was elaborated and adopted in 1869, the main features of which are the use of heavy earthen barbette batteries, protected by high traverses, and arranged for guns and mortars of large caliber, to be supplemented in the future by guns of the heaviest modern caliber, and of obstructions in the channels (mainly electrical torpedoes) to prevent vessels from running past the batteries. The Chief of Engineers recommends, in addition to completing the open batteries already partially constructed, the conversion of some of the casemated forts for the reception of guns of the The trials and experiments with the torpedo largest caliber behind armor-plates of iron. defense have continued at Willett's Point with satisfactory results. The battalion of engineers, under the law reducing the army, has been fixed at 200 enlisted men. This number is thought to be too small for the efficient performance of the duties required of them.

On October 1st there were in store as a reserve supply only 22,585 arms of the latest model. The Hotchkiss gun has been approved by the board of officers convened by order of the Secretary of War for the purpose of recommending a magazine gun for the military service.

The number of military convicts confined in the military prison of Fort Leavenworth on November 25th was 375. They are chiefly occupied in the manufacture of shoes for the troops.

An order was issued by the President on April 12th granting to Gen. Fitz John Porter a court of inquiry into such new evidence as he might offer relative to a sentence of a courtmartial in 1862 which dismissed him from the army.

The condition of the Union and Confederate war records is stated by the Secretary of War to be as follows:

The records of the war of the rebellion, both Union and Confederate, are under the charge of the Adjutant-General of the Army. The work of preparing these for publication is under charge of Col. Robert N. Scott, to whose report I invite attention. The work of collecting reports of battles by Union commanders, which were not originally forwarded, has been unremittingly prosecuted since the close of the

war, and a very large number has been added to the files through the medium of correspondence. There are yet some important reports missing, but hopes are entertained of procuring them. The Confederate records obtained in Richmond at the time of its capture were brought here in 1865, and have been carefully arranged. The agent recently appointed, Gen. Marcus J. Wright, has been assiduously and successfully engaged for the past five months in procuring interesting papers relating to that side. Through a candid and liberal understanding with the Southern Historical Society, as well as with sev eral other possessors of such papers, this Department is daily adding to its material for a history of the war. considerable amount of matter systematically arThe Department is ready to transmit to Congress & ranged so soon as specific action by Congress shall enable it to do so. The appropriations heretofore made have been for preparing for publication, not for publishing.

ASIA. The area and population of the different divisions of Asia were given as follows in 1878 (see Behm and Wagner, Bevölkerung der Erde," v., Gotha, 1878):

66

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This table does not include the territorial cessions made by Turkey. (See EASTERN QUESTION.)

The Chinese troops completed at the beginning of 1878 the conquest of Kashgaria, and this country, after being for several years one of the independent states of Asia, is now again one of the tributary states of China. (See CHINA.)

The war between Russia and Turkey practically came to a close in Asia in 1877, few movements of importance being made in 1878. The treaty of Berlin gave to Russia a large slice of Asiatic Turkey, and to Persia the town of Khotur. (See EASTERN QUESTION.)

No sooner had the Berlin treaty been signed, settling for some time to come, as was supposed, the Eastern question in Europe, than it seemed as if it were to break out anew in the heart of Asia. The Indian Government sent an embassy to Shere Ali, the Ameer of Cabool, which the latter refused to admit to his dominions. It was supposed by many that he was instigated to take this course by the Russian Government, and it was therefore expected that, if war should follow between Great Britain and Afghanistan, Russia, if not actively engaged on the side of the latter, would still be her friend. Toward the close of the year, war was actually begun, and the Afghan territory invaded by a large English force. (See INDIA and AFGHANISTAN.)

An important act was passed in India, placing restrictions on the native press, which had become very seditious in its utterances. The famine which prevailed in India during 1877 continued during the early part of 1878, and its effects were felt during the entire year. (See INDIA.)

News reached Europe of a new Russian expedition to Central Asia, which was said to have been planned before the beginning of the Russo-Turkish war. The expedition was reported to aim at the occupation of the five minor khanates between the southern course of the Amoo Darya and Hindoo Koosh-Kara Zin, Shugnal, Darvas, Sarikol, and Vakhan. Of these khanates, the first three are independent, Sarikol belongs to Kashgar, and the Ameer of Vakhan is a feudatory of the Ameer of Cabool.

The famine in the north of China continued during 1878 in all its horrors, abating slightly toward the close of the year. Negotiations were set on foot by China to obtain the territory of Kulja from Russia, which power had occupied it for several years. (See CHINA.)

The King of Burmah died on October 23d. No disturbances took place, and his successor the Crown Prince was quietly proclaimed King..

belt within which the eclipse was total passed Over Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, the southwest corner of Kansas, the Indian Territory, Texas, and Louisiana. Eminent observers were sent out at the expense of the United States Government to several stations along the line of totality. A number of colleges and universities were also represented by distinguished astronomers. Prof. Simon Newcomb, Commander W. T. Sampson, and Lieut. C. G. Bowman were at or near Separation, Wyoming Territory. Prof. William Harkness, Lieut. E. W. Sturdy, A. M. Skinner, Prof. O. H. Robinson, L. E. Wallace, and A. G. Clark were in the same neighborhood; as were also Prof. James C. Watson of Ann Arbor, and the celebrated spectroscopist M. Janssen of France. Besides these, Dr. Draper of New York, Prof. Barker of Philadelphia, Mr. Trouvelot of Cambridge, and Mr. Edison, the distinguished inventor, selected their points of observation in Wyoming. Prof. Asaph Hall, Prof. J. A. Rogers, A. W. Wright, H. F. Gordon, A. B. Wheeler, Prof. J. K. Eastman, Lewis Bass, H. M. Paul, H. S. Pritchett, Prof. E. S. Holden, Lieut. T. W. Very, Dr. C. S. Hastings, Mr. G. W. Hill of the Nautical Almanac Office, Gen. Myer, Prof. Cleveland Abbe, Prof. S. P. Langley, Prof. C. A. Young, C. F. Brackett, C. J. Rockwood, W. Libbey, G. H. Calley, C. D. Bennett, W. McDonald, C. J. Young, H. S. S. Smith, Prof. Maria Mitchell, Prof. Thorpe, Dr. Schuster, Prof. Ormond Stone of Cincinnati, C. W. Upton, Prof. G. W. Hough, Prof. E. Colbert of the Chicago Astronomical Society, S. W. Burnham, Dr. Swazey, A. C. Thomas, Prof. Easterday, Mr. Lewis Swift of Rochester, and Mr. J. Norman Lockyer of England, observed from stations selected in Colorado. Messrs. L. Waldo and R. W. Wilson of Harvard College, F. E. Seagrove of Providence, J. K. Rees and W. H. Pulsifer of St. Louis, with several assistants, observed at Fort Worth, Texas; and Prof. D. P. Todd of Washington, D. C., was at Dallas in the same State.

Results of Observation-Discovery of Two Intra-Mercurial Planets. Since 1859, the date of M. Lescarbault's observation of a supposed transit, the existence of a planet, or more than one, within Mercury's orbit, has been regarded by several astronomers as highly probable. Total eclipses of the sun afford the best opportunities for the detection of such bodies; and accordingly Prof. James C. Watson of Ann Arbor, and Mr. Lewis Swift of Rochester, decided to occupy themselves exclusively with the search during the eclipse of July 29, 1878. The details of their observations may be found in the "American Journal of Science" for September and October, 1878. One intra-Mercurial planet was undoubtedly seen by each of these observers at different stations, and Prof. Watson is confident that he saw a second. He says:

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS. Total Eclipse of the Sun.-The solar eclipse of July 29th was successfully observed not only by American astronomers but Immediately after the commencement of totality also by parties from France and England. The I began sweeps east and west extending about eight

VOL. XVIII.-3 A

degrees from the sun. I had previously committed to memory the relative places of stars near the sun down to the seventh magnitude, and the chart of the region was placed conveniently in front of me for ready reference whenever required. The first sweep began with the sun in the middle of the field, and extended eastward about eight degrees and back, and I saw Delta Cancri and smaller stars marked on the chart. The next sweep was one field farther south, and eastward and back as before. Then placing the sun in the field, I commenced a corresponding sweep to the westward. Between the sun and Theta Cancri, and south of the middle of the field, I came across a star, estimated at the time to be of the four and a half magnitude, which shone with a ruddy light, and certainly had a larger disk than the spurious disk of a star. The focus of the eyepiece had been carefully adjusted beforehand and securely clamped, and the definition was excellent. I proceeded therefore to mark its position on the paper circles, and to record the time of observation. It was designated by a. The place of the sun had been recorded a few minutes previously and marked 8. Placing my eye again at the telescope, I assured myself that it had not been disturbed, and proceeded with the search. I noticed particularly that the object in question did not present any elongation, such as would be probable were it a comet in that position. In the next and final sweep I brought into the field what I supposed to be Zeta Cancri, although it appeared very much brighter than what I expected from the appearance of Delta Cancri, which I had seen in the first sweep. I proceeded to record its position on the circles with the designation b.

The positions of these objects as finally determined by Prof. Watson were as follows:

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Prof. Watson has no doubt whatever that the first is a planet within Mercury's orbit. "In regard to (b)," he remarks, "it is possible, but not probable, that the pointing of the instrument may have been disturbed by the wind. I marked the position on the hour circle first, and but a moment was occupied in passing from the eyepiece to the hour circle. I believe that this observation can be relied upon as giving the place of a second intra-Mercurial planet."

Mr. Lewis Swift of Rochester, N. Y., who observed from a position in the vicinity of Denver, Col., saw also the planet (a), near Theta Cancri. He estimated its brightness as about equal to that of a fifth-magnitude star.

Observations of the Corona.- Profs. Draper, Barker, and Morton, together with Mr. Edison, gave special attention to the corona, in order, if possible, to determine its true nature. With these observers, the main question for decision was whether the corona is an incandescent, self-luminous gas, or whether, like the planets, it shines by reflected light. Their station was at Rawlins, in latitude 41° 48′ 50′′, longitude 30° 11' 0" west from Washington; height above the sea, 6,732 feet. The photographic and photo-spectroscopic work was by Dr. Draper; the observations with the analyzing slit spectroscope, by Prof. Barker; and

those with the polariscope, by Prof. Morton. The spectrum of the corona was not that of an incandescent gas; its photograph indicated a height equal to two thirds of the sun's diameter, or nearly 600,000 miles; the polarization was shown by Prof. Morton to be such as would be produced by reflected light; the Fraunhofer dark lines were seen in the spectrum of the corona; and finally, Mr. Edison's tasimeter was violently affected by the coronal heat. "The general conclusion," says Dr. Draper, "that follows from these results is, that on this occasion we have ascertained the true nature of the corona, viz.: it shines by light reflected from the sun by a cloud of meteors surrounding that luminary; and that on former occasions it has been infiltrated with materials thrown up from the chromosphere, notably with the 1474 matter and hydrogen. As the chromosphere is now quiescent, this infiltration has taken place to a scarcely perceptible degree recently. This explanation of the nature of the corona reconciles itself so well with many facts that have been difficult to explain, such as the low pressure at the surface of the sun, that it gains thereby additional strength."

The apparent extent of the corona as observed at different stations was remarkably various; the difference being doubtless owing in part to the relative altitudes of the points of observation. The measures of Mr. Easterday gave a height of 700,000 miles above the sun's surface. Profs. Langley and Newcomb traced the coronal matter along the ecliptic to a distance of more than 9,000,000 miles from the sun. Prof. Cleveland Abbe, who observed with the naked eye from Pike's Peak, traced one coronal stream along the ecliptic to a distance of six diameters of the sun, and another at right angles to the ecliptic to a distance of five diameters. The light of the former was "an exceedingly faint and delicate white, apparently overlaid or intermingled with the blue of the atmosphere. There was no decided increase of brightness in that part of the ray near the solar limb, nor in the axis of the beam; but the delicate light continued uniform up to the corona in whose glare it was lost." Prof. Abbe regards these coronal streams as collections of meteors moving in cometary orbits about the sun, and rendered visible by reflecting the solar light-the view now also adopted by several other astronomers.

Prof. C. A. Young, Mr. Lockyer, and other observers regard the observations of 1878 as demonstrating an intimate relation between the sun's condition as to the number of its spots, and the constitution of the corona. The recent eclipse was at a time of sun-spot minimum. Indeed, there has been a marked paucity of spots for the last two years.. The chromosphere has been free from agitation; the flame-colored prominences have been few and small; and, in short, the whole solar surface has been remarkably quiescent. Corresponding to this condition of the sun, the

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