CONTRACTED SENTENCES.

8. When co-ordinate sentences contain either the same subject, the same predicate, the same object, or the same adverbial adjunct to the predicate, it often happens that the portion which they have in common is expressed only once. case the compound sentence is said to be contracted.

In this

Examples.-"Neither I nor you have seen that;" i.e., "Neither I (have seen that), nor have you seen that." "Both John and his brother were there; i.e., Both John (was there) and his brother was there." In these contracted sentences the predicate is expressed only once.

"He stole a purse and was convicted of the theft; i.e., "He stole a purse, and (he) was convicted of the theft." 66 Religion purifies and ennobles the the soul; i.e., "Religion purifies and (religion) ennobles the soul." In these contracted sentences the subject is expressed only once.

"Carbonic acid is gaseous and poisonous; i.e., "Carbonic acid is gaseous and (carbonic acid is) poisonous.' Here the subject and the verb of incomplete predication is are expressed only once.

"He rode away in anger and in haste; i.e., "He rode away in anger and he (rode away) in haste." Here the common subject and predicate are expressed only once.

"He reads and writes well;" i.e., "He reads (well) and (he) writes well." Here the common subject and the common adverbial adjunct are expressed only once.

"It has been already remarked that a sentence is not necessarily a contracted sentence because we find co-ordinate conjunctions used in it.

"It follows, from the principle on which co-ordinate and contracted sentences are constructed, that the co-ordinate conjunctions must always join words and clauses which stand in the same relation to the other parts of the sentence. It would make nonsense if we attempted to join an adjective to a noun (unless the latter be used attributively or predicatively), or a subject to an adverb, or a verb in the indicative mood to a verb in the imperative mood.*"-Mason.

* Young letter writers constantly forget this rule at the close of their epistles, where such combinations as "I have no more to say, and believe me yours truly," are very frequent.

RULE I.-A verb must agree with its subject in number and person; as, I love, thou lovest, he loves.

Observations.-(1) The subject is always the nominative case. The subject is generally a noun or pronoun. (2) When an adjective is used as a noun, it may be the subject of a verb; as, The brave are admired. (3) The present participle or the infinitive may be used as the subject; as, Talking is easy; to talk is easy. (4) Part of a sentence is sometimes used as the subject; as, That drunkenness is a great evil, admits not of doubt. (5) Any of the parts of speech, used merely as words may, be the subject.

EXERCISE.

Point out the subjects and the verbs which agree with them in the following:

Friendship is a pleasing bond. Every tree has been a twig. A little prudence is always needful. No poet was ever a great orator. A heavy supper is not wholesome. When the sky is. calm the sailor is merry. So much negligence indeed is very disgraceful. To give is easy, to receive difficult. Sweet Peace, where dost thou dwell? As I one evening sat before my cell.

There love and freedom we'll in peace enjoy,
No Spaniards will that colony destroy;
We to ourselves will all our wishes grant,
And nothing coveting can nothing want.

Supply appropriate verbs, and make them agree in number and person with their subjects in the following:

God () love. Man () mortal. The sun ( ). The stars ( ). The earth () round the sun in a year. The earth's motion () day and night. The moon () round the earth in twenty-nine days. Light ( ) in straight rays from the sun. The drunkard() his days in poverty. Cowards ( ) always despised.

COMPOSITION.

Compose sentences of the following words, making them the subjects after the preceding models:

The world. The heavens. The atmosphere. A continent. An island. Oceans. Seas. Europe. Asia. England. France. London. I. Thou. He. Working. To work. Playing. To play. The good (used as a noun plural). That it is our duty to forgive our enemies.

RULE II.-Two or more singular subjects joined with and, should have a verb and pronoun in the plural;* as, Alexander and Cæsar were both great generals; they gained many mighty conquests.

(1) This rule holds good even when the and is not expressed; as, Peace, contentment, happiness, are the heritage of the good.

(2) When the second of two subjects is preceded by not, the verb and pronoun should be singular; as, Continued perseverance, and not momentary excitement, accomplishes great things.

(3) When two nouns come together conveying the idea of one thing or person, the verb should be singular; as, The wheel and axle is one of the mechanical powers.

(4) When the two nouns are preceded by every or each, the verb should be singular; as, Every limb and feature was beautifully chiselled.

EXERCISE.

Point out the singular subjects in the following, with the verbs and pronouns which agree with them :

David and Jonathan were true friends. The Pacific and the Atlantic are the two largest oceans. Spain and Portugal form a peninsula. Peter, James, and John have been regarded as the favourite apostles of Christ. Faith, Hope, and Love constitute a blessed trinity. Money and beauty lead many men astray. Every man and woman was frightened.

Kindness calms anger and soothes misfortune.

Kind words are the diamonds and pearls of everyday life.
Prosperity gains friends and adversity tries them.

Quickness and precision are the life and soul of all business.
Supply appropriate verbs and pronouns in the following:—

Latin and Greek () styled the learned languages. Shakespeare and Milton () England's greatest poets. England, Scotland, and Wales (Great Britain. Socrates and Plato () the greatest philosophers of antiquity and ( ) memory is still honoured. The bread-and-butter () ready. My bane and antidote () both before me.

COMPOSITION.

Compose sentences with the following words as subjects :—

Gold and silver. Grammar and geography. Reading, writing and arithmetic. Bread-and-cheese. Youth, and not old age.

*This rule is really included in the first rule, for two or more singular subjects joined by and make a plural.

RULE III.-Two or more singular subjects separated by or, or nor, should have verbs and pronouns in the singular; as, Either James or Thomas has taken my pen.

(1.) If the or is understood, the verb and pronoun are still singular; as, That a miser should be wretched, that a spendthrift should be poor, is not surprising.

(2.) Two singular subjects connected by the phrase as well as, should have the verb in the singular; as, Pope, as well as Dryden, was a good poet.

EXERCISE.

Point out the singular subjects in the following, also the verbs and pronouns which agree with them :

Winter or summer is equally agreeable to me. Neither cotton nor tea grows in this country. Either John or his father is greatly to blame. The king or his minister has sent it. Either the master or mistress is in the dining-room. Either Mary or her sister comes every morning. Painting, as well as music, is

a valuable accomplishment.

Labour is more honourable than wealth or ancestry.
Let your anger set with the sun, but not rise with it.

The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark,

When neither is attended.

Supply appropriate verbs and pronouns to the following:Either Homer, Virgil, or Milton () a good specimen of an epic poet. Charles II. as well as King John ( ) a bad monarch. Neither beauty nor wit() so valuable as good sense. How happy it was that neither of us () ill in the Hebrides. If an Aristotle, or a Galileo, ( ) for () opinions, ()() a martyr. The tiniest flower, as well as the mightiest oak, something to teach us. (

COMPOSITION.

Make sentences with the following singular subjects:

Either self-conceit, presumption, or obstinacy. The Duke of Marlborough or the Duke of Wellington. Happiness or misery. Life or Death. Time or eternity. The press, the platform, or the pulpit. Cromwell, as well as Napoleon. Falsehood, as well as cowardice. Neither wealth nor honour.

RULE IV. When singular and plural subjects are separated by or, or nor, the verb and pronoun should be plural; as, Either the master or his men were in fault.*

Observation.-The plural subject should generally be placed next the verb.

EXERCISE.

Point out the plural subjects and the verbs which agree with them in the following:—

Neither poverty nor riches are to be coveted. Either the general or his soldiers were cruel. Neither he nor they have done it. Either Pompey or his men were weak; for they were routed by the inferior numbers of Cæsar. Where are the goods or the invoice? Where are the hours or the money he has wasted? Neither money nor men were wanting for the service. When a widow or her children are in distress, they are to be assisted.

The march begins in military state,
And nations on his eye suspended wait;
Stern famine guards the solitary coast,
And winter barricades the realms of frost ;
He comes, nor wants nor cold his course delay;
Hide, blushing glory, hide Pultowa's day!

Supply appropriate verbs and pronouns to the following:-

Neither the captain nor the sailors () saved. Neither bravery nor the greatest exertions () sufficient. Either thou or they () done it. Either the thief or his accomplices () caught. Neither the king nor the princes ( ) arrived; but () are sure to be here before dinner-time. The time or times () changed. The queen or her ministers () consulted.

pupils. He or they. Honour or riches. The mother or her daughters. The king or his ministers. Neither bravery nor noble deeds.

Cæsar or his troops.

*This rule, like the second, is only a modification of the first rule, which is the principal rule of Syntax.