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François's machines are used with the daily average progress above recorded. Boring operations had to be suspended during the whole of December on account of the want of ventilation, caused by the fall of the waters of the Tremola. Snow and ice also hindered the operations very much. Up to the 12th of December three of Someiller's machines had been in use for widening the tunnel; from that date four of McKean's machines began working. In several places boring operations were also carried on by hand. For the railways in the Ticino Valley in connection with the tunnel, over 660,000 cubic feet of earth had been cleared away; the total number of workmen employed there at the present time is on the average 2,952, and on the whole St. Gothard Railway 4,914.

SUMNER, CHARLES, LL. D., S. P. A. S., etc., an American statesman, scholar, and author, born in Boston, Mass., January 6, 1811; died in Washington, D. C., March 11, 1874. He was the son of Charles Pinkney Sumner, of Boston, and was educated at the Boston Latin School and at Harvard College, graduating from the latter in 1830. He commenced the study of law under Mr. Justice Story. He was admitted to the bar in Worcester in 1884, but began in Boston the practice which soon surpassed that of any other young lawyer there. He was not long after made Reporter of the United States Circuit Court, and published three volumes of Judge Story's decisions, at the same time editing the American Jurist. During the first three winters following his entrance into the profession, he lectured before the Law School in the absence of Judge Story and Prof. Greenleaf, and with so much success, that he was urged to take a professor's chair. Several years before he had edited, with great ability and discrimination, “A Treatise on the Practice of the Courts of Admiralty in Civil Causes of Maritime Jurisdiction," by Andrew Dunlap; a work undertaken in consequence of the illness of Mr. Dunlap. In 1837 he went to Europe, and remained there three years, visiting the highest courts, and both Houses of Parliament. In France and Germany he made the acquaintance of the most eminent jurists, publicists, and distinguished scientists. While in Paris, he wrote, at the request of our minister, General Cass, a paper in defense of our northeastern boundary claims, which attracted great attention both in Europe and America. In 1840 he resumed the practice of his profession. In 1843 he was again made lecturer at the Law School, and in 1844-46 published, with numerous biographical sketches and explanatory notes, "Vesey's Reports," in twenty volumes. On July 4, 1845, he pronounced, before the authorities of the city of Boston, an oration entitled "The True Grandeur of Nations." It was an eloquent defense of peace. Before the close of the year, he spoke ably and eloquently against the Mexican War and against the pro-slavery inter

ests which were urging it; and in 1846, in an address before the Whig Convention on the "Antislavery Duties of the Whig Party," he announced his uncompromising hostility to slavery. In 1848 Mr. Sumner abandoned the Whigs, and went over to the Free-Soilers; Mr. Webster, after having sustained the fugitive-slave law, resigned his seat in the Senate for one in the cabinet; and in 1851, after a long and fierce struggle, Sumner was elected his successor. He was almost alone in the Senate, and the tactics of his adversaries were, never to allow him to gain the floor, so that it was nearly nine months after he had taken his seat in the Senate, and then only by seizing an opportunity when they were off their guard, that he was able to make a speech on the subject nearest his heart. That speech has become historical under the title, "Freedom National, Slavery Sectional." Thenceforward, in the Senate and out of it, he was known and welcomed as the most eloquent and efficient of the opponents of slavery. He spoke at Plymouth Rock in August, 1853; at the Republican Convention of Massachusetts, in September, 1854; in the Metropolitan Theatre in New York, in May, 1855; and at Fanueil Hall in November of the same year: and each time with great boldness and fervor, on different phases of the great subject. In the Senate he opposed the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. In May, 1856, he delivered his great speech in the Senate, "The Crime against Kansas," occupying two days; and its uncompromising spirit, and its severity, led to his being assaulted in his seat in the Senate-chamber, by Preston S. Brooks, a member of Congress from South Carolina, two days later, the circumstances of which are well known. The injuries he received were severe, so that he was disabled from public duties for nearly four years; and from its effects he never fully recovered. He took his seat again in the Senate in the spring of 1860, and in the early summer delivered a speech entitled "The Barbarism of Slavery," in which he referred to the assault in no vindictive or even pointed terms. He labored actively in the presidential campaign of 1860 for the election of Lincoln and Hamlin. In the winter of 1860-'61 he was firm in his opposition to any concessions to the South, as alike foolish and wicked.

At the commencement of the next session of Congress, in the summer of 1861, he became chairman of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. Mr. Sumner was often accused of being radical, ultra, and bitter; but in all the years of the war, he was, according to the testimony of those best qualified to judge, and who were themselves never accused of radical1sm, the most cautious, prudent, and judicious of counselors, and more than once was instrumental in averting war with Great Britain or France when it appeared imminent. In other measures appertaining to home affairs, he was not less active and useful. The thirteenth

constitutional amendment, if not originated by him, received his hearty support, and was carried by his influence. He was also prompt in his advocacy of reconstructive measures, and in the manifestation of a kindly spirit toward the South. He was a decided enemy to the "policy" of President Johnson, and was active in his impeachment trial. He voted for President Grant at his first election, though he was not particularly active in the canvas. His speech on the Alabama claims was vehemently denounced abroad, but its principles were those on which the arbitrators subsequently acted, and to which the British Government gave its reluctant sanction. In December, 1870, he opposed with great ability and some vehemence the project of President Grant for the annexation of the Dominican Republic, and caused its defeat. The President, at the opening of the next Congress, signified his desire to his friends that Mr. Sumner should be removed from the chairmanship of the Committee on Foreign Relations, and Senator Cameron was put in his place. In February, 1872, he made one of his finest efforts on the question of an investigation of the sales of ordnance made by the United States during the FrancoGerman War. This speech was said even by those most bitterly opposed to him to have been the ablest of his whole senatorial career; but his health was breaking down from the long-continued mental strain, and the old malady which had resulted from the assault upon him returned immediately after the delivery of this speech, and his physician ordered him to abstain from all mental labor for the remainder of the session. He absented himself for some weeks, but he could not wholly refrain from taking part in the contest which was coming. The supplementary civil-rights bill, a measure he had much at heart, was after a severe struggle passed in the Senate, but failed to receive the necessary two-thirds vote in the House. On May 31, 1872, he delivered a long and carefully-prepared speech vindicating his course, and arraigning the President for the alleged misuse of the appointing power. The condition of his health making it necessary for him to go to Europe about the 1st of June, whence he did not return till late in November, he took no part in the presidential campaign of 1872, and declined the nomination for Governor of Massachusetts, which was tendered him. His influence was thrown in favor of Horace Greeley. On taking his seat again in the Senate, in December, 1872, he introduced a resolution providing that the names of battles with fellow-citizens shall not be continued in the Army Register, or placed in the regimental colors of the United States. This resolution excited the indignation of some bitter partisans, and a resolution was offered in the Massachusetts Legislature to censure Senator Sumner for an attempt to degrade the loyal soldiery of the nation and their grand achievements by this proposal.

This resolution of censure was passed, but the Legislature of 1874 made haste to rescind it, and before his last illness the news reached Washington that Massachusetts had struck from her legislative records her first and only censure of him. During the short session of 1872-173, as well as the early portion of that of 1873-74, Mr. Sumner seldom mingled in debate. More than once he was alarmingly ill from angina pectoris, and he was compelled to content himself with passing as far as he was able the measures in which he was specially interested. During the whole winter of 1873-74 he was an invalid, and constantly under the care of a physician, but was generally in his place in the Senate. The fatal attack of angina commenced on the afternoon of Tuesday, March 10th, but with no considerable severity till after 6 P. M. For the next twenty hours his suffering was intense and almost constant, and he died at 2.47 p. M. of Wednesday, March 11th.

In person Mr. Sumner was tall, well formed, and commanding. His voice was remarkably melodious, and his action in speaking graceful as well as animated. His mind was not only marked by the highest characteristics of ability, it was stored with a rich array of elegant and useful knowledge. He was equally at home in the modern and the ancient classics, and could quote from either with singular readiness and accuracy; and, in addition to a very retentive memory, he was gifted with strong imaginative powers. To the most elegant accomplishments he added the sternest purity of purpose. That he sometimes erred from the very intensity of his convictions, his best friends will admit, but no man could accuse him justly of any mean, low, or personal motive in his action. His hands were clean from bribes.

Mr. Sumner had been a somewhat voluminous writer, though every thing from his pen was very carefully prepared, and touched, and retouched, till it satisfied his fastidious taste. Among his smaller works were: "The Scholar, the Jurist, the Artist, the Philanthropist " (1846); "Fame and Glory" (1847); "White Slavery in the Barbary States " (1847); "Law of Human Progress" (1848); Finger Point from Plymouth Rock" (1853); "Landmark of Freedom" (1854); "The Antislavery Enterprise" (1855); "Position and Duties of the Merchant" (1855); "Our Foreign Relations" (1863); "The Case of the Florida" (1864);

The Provisions of the Declaration of Independence" (1865); "Eulogy on Abraham Lincoln" (1865); "The National Security and the National Faith" (1865); “Our Claims on England" (1869). A collection of his speeches, in two volumes, was published in 1850; his more recent speeches and addresses were published in 1856, and a collection of his entire works which was in progress at his death, has since been published, with a memoir by Charles A. Phelps, LL. D., in 12 vols., 8vo.

SWEDEN AND NORWAY, two kingdoms of Northern Europe, united under the same dynasty. King, Oscar II., born January 21, 1829; succeeded to the throne at the death of his brother, Charles XV., September 18, 1872; married June 6, 1857, to Sophia, born July 9, 1836, daughter of the late Duke Wilhelm of Nassau. Oldest son: Gustavus, heir-apparent, Duke of Wermland, born June 16, 1858.

The executive authority is in the hands of the King, who acts under the advice of a Council of State, composed of ten members, of whom two have the title of State Ministers,

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The navy, which was entirely reorganized in 1866-67, consisted, at the beginning of 1874, of 37 steamers, 8 sailing-vessels, 88 galleys: total, 133 vessels, of 455 guns. At the end of 1873, the navy was officered by two rear-admirals, six commanders, 20 commanding-captains, 43 captains, and 43 lieutenants. The principal port is that of Carlscrona, on the

Baltic.

The imports and exports, in 1872 and 1871, were as follows (expressed in thousands of crowns):

1871.

and eight that of Councillors of State; of the
latter five are chiefs of departments. At the
close of 1873, the Swedish Council of State
was composed of the following members: 1.
The Minister of State and Justice, E. H. de
Carleson, appointed May 4, 1874, appointed
Minister of Justice, June 3, 1870; 2. Minister
of State and Foreign Affairs, Major-General
Oscar M. de Björnstjerna, appointed Minister
of Foreign Affairs, December 17, 1872; 3. C.
J. Berg, appointed June 4, 1868; 4. Chief of
the Department of the Navy, Major-General 1872..
Baron Brader Abraham Leijonhufvud, ap-
pointed January 14, 1870; 5. Chief of the De-
partment of Ecclesiastical Affairs, Dr. G. Wen-
nerberg, appointed June 3, 1870; 6. Chief of
the Department of the Interior, Dr. P. A.
Bergström, appointed June 3, 1870; 7. Baron
C. J. O. Alströmer, appointed June 15, 1870;
8. Chief of the Department of War, Major-
General Erik Oscar Weidenhielm, appointed
December 5, 1871; 9. Dr. J. H. Lovén (June
5, 1874); 10. Chief of the Department of
Finance, J. G. N. S. Baron Akerhielm, ap-
pointed September 28, 1874.

In Norway the King exercises his authority through a Council of State, composed of one Minister of State and nine Councilors. Two of the councilors, together with the minister, form a delegation of the Council of State, residing at Stockholm, near the King.

The area of Sweden is 170,591 square miles; population, in 1873, 4,297,972.*

The emigration, from 1851 to 1860, numbered 16,900 persons; from 1861 to 1870, 122,447; in 1868, 27,024; in 1869, 39,064; in 1870, 20,003; in 1871, 17,458; in 1872, 15,912; in 1873, 13,580.

The following towns, in 1873, had a population of more than 10,000 inhabitants: Stockholm, 147,249; Göteborg, 61,599; Malmö, 28,325; Norrköping, 25,982; Carlscrona, 16,586; Gefle, 16,265; Upsala, 12,086; Jönköping, 12,138; Lund, 11,408.

In the budget for 1875 the revenue was estimated at 99,249,939 crowns; the expenditures at 99,249,939 crowns. The public debt, at the end of 1873, amounted to 122,080,000 riksdalers. The total strength of the armed forces was, in September, 1873, as follows:

* For the area and population of the several läns into which the country is divided see ANNUAL CYCLOPÆDIA for 1873.

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The movement of shipping was, in 1872, as follows:

Swedish

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Norwegian.
Foreign..

Total..

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The commercial navy of Sweden numbered, in 1871, 3,878 vessels, of 130,267 lasts. The number of vessels registered for the foreign trade was 1,783, of a total burden of 102,328 lasts.

The aggregate length of railroads in operation, in August, 1874, was 2,638.9 kilometres; of those in course of construction, 2,807 kilometres (1 kilometre = 0.62 mile). The number of post-offices in 1872 was 546. The revenue amounted to 2,716,050 riksdalers; the expenditures to 2,291,318 riksdalers. The aggregate length of the state telegraph-lines was 7,057 kilometres; and of telegraph-wires, 14,943 kilometres.

The area of Norway is 122,280 square miles. The population was, in 1872, estimated at 1,763,000. The following towns had, in 1870, a population of more than 10,000 inhabitants: Christiania, 66,657 (in 1872 about 70,000, and with the suburbs 80,000); Bergen, 30,252; Drontheim, 20,858; Havanger, 16,053; Drammen, 15,458; Christiansand, 11,468. The budget for the period ending June 30, 1874, estimates the revenue and expenditure at 5,455.704 specie dalers each (1 specie daler: = $1.11). The public debt at the end of August, 1873, had become reduced to 6,876,000 specie dalers. On

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The commercial navy, at the end of 1873, consisted of 7,447 vessels, of a total burden of 592,997 commercial lasts (1 last = 2.1 tons). The aggregate length of railroads in operation at the end of 1873 was 502 kilometres; the aggregate length of telegraph-lines, 6,238 kilometres; of wires, 9,643 kilometres.

The Swedish Diet was opened by the King on January 19th. In his opening speech, while speaking of the foreign relations of Sweden, the King laid special stress on the visit of the Crown-prince of Germany, as a proof of the friendly connections of Sweden and Germany. On closing the Diet, May 22d, the King referred with special satisfaction to the passage of the new law on commercial navigation, and to the increased appropriations for educational purposes.

SWITZERLAND, a republic of Central Europe, consisting of twenty-two cantons, three of which are divided each into two independent half-cantons. The supreme legislative and executive authority is vested in a Parliament of two Chambers, the Ständerath, or State Council, and the Nationalrath, or National Council. The first is composed of forty-four members, two for each canton. The Nationalrath consists of 135 representatives of the Swiss people, chosen in direct election, at the rate of one deputy for every 20,000 souls. Both Chambers united are called the Federal Assembly, and as such represent the supreme Government of the republic. The chief executive authority is deputed to a Federal Council, consisting of seven members, elected for three years by the Federal Assembly. The President and Vice-President of the Federal Council, who are the first magistrates of the republic, are elected by the Federal Assembly for the term of one year, and are not reëligible till after the expiration of another year. The President of the Federal Council for the year 1874 was K. Schenck, of the canton of Bern; Vice-President, Dr. E. Welti, of the canton of Aargau. President of the National Council for the session of the Federal Assembly, beginning in June, 1874, K. Feer Herzog, of the canton of Aargau; Vice-President, L. Ruchonnet, of the canton of Vaud. President of the State Council, A. Köchlin, of

the canton of Basel; Vice-President, J. K. P. Morel, of the canton of St.-Gall.

Area of Switzerland, 15,992 square miles. Population, according to the census of 1870, 2,669,147, of whom 1,566,347 (58.7 per cent.) were Evangelical; 1,084,369 (40.6 per cent.) Catholics; 11,435 members of Christian sects, and 6,996 Jews.

The total revenue of the Confederation in the year 1873 amounted to 34,343,168 francs; the expenditures to 33,613,325 francs. The budget for 1874 estimated the revenue at 37,061,000 francs; the expenditures at 37,071,000 francs. The liabilities of the republic amounted, in 1873, to 29,288,181; as a set-off against which there is Federal property amounting to 29,487,829 francs.

The strength and organization of the armed forces of Switzerland were as follows, at the end of 1873.

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The aggregate length of Swiss railways, in 1874, was 1,573 kilometres; that of telegraphlines, in 1873, 5,843 kilometres; of wires, 14,169 kilometres.

The revision of the Federal Constitution which, in 1873, had been made by the Federal Council,* was submitted to a popular vote on April 19, 1874. The new revision strengthens the authority of the central Government in matters military, legal, and especially ecclesiastical. The control of the Confederation over the army has hitherto been, more especially as far as the line is concerned, of the loosest and feeblest kind; and the cantons look with keen jealousy on any infringement of their existing power to manage their own contingent of the Federal army. But it is evident that the victories of Germany, due in chief measure to the homogeneous organization, have impressed the more thoughtful of the Swiss people with the untrustworthiness of disjointed and segregated battalions in time of war, and more especially in the event of a sudden emergency. The partial assimilation of the law, which va ries almost inconceivably in the various cantons, is another main object of the revision, and every thing has been done by those who were intrusted with drawing it up to avoid exciting unnecessary opposition. It would be impossible at once to pass a uniform code of laws for the entire Confederation, and it is intended only to provide for the gradual introduction of the more urgent reforms, in a style likely to be acceptable to the cantons which are

* See ANNUAL CYCLOPÆDIA for 1873, article SWITZERLAND

thus asked to surrender a portion of their old customs. Finally, the innovations in the relations between the Catholic Church and the cantonal governments are of a sweeping kind, and will place the Roman Catholic Church in Switzerland in a yet more subject state than that to which it is being reduced in Germany. Hence the vote of the Catholic party was given undividedly against the revision. Save as regards ecclesiastical affairs, the present revision was much less ambitious than its rejected predecessor; and this fact no doubt accounts for the striking contrast between the present and the previous plebiscitum: while the latter was, in 1872, adverse to revision by a majority of about 4,000, the people this time approved revision by about a two-thirds majority. The proportion of those voting for the revision to the total number of voters, in the several cantons, was as follows:

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half-canton of Appenzell (Inner Rhodes). The only addition to this phalanx was the canton of Ticino, which, though wholly Catholic, had for more than thirty years, during all the conflicts of the Federal Government and the Catholic bishops, sided with the former. The government of the canton cast again its vote in favor of the revision, but the large majority of the people voted against it. Many other indications showed that the long ascendency of the Liberal party in this canton had been undermined, and thus foreshadowed the complete overthrow of the Liberal party, which took place at the new election of a Grand Council at the beginning of 1875.

The conflict between the Federal authorities and the majority of the cantons on the one hand, and the heads of the Catholic Church on the other, continued throughout the year 1874. The Papal nuncio and the bishops sent, in Jan

uary, 1874, notes to the Federal Council, protesting against the proposed suppression of the Papal nunciature to Switzerland, but the Federal Council resolved to lay them on the table, and the Papal nuncio, having received his passports, departed on February 9th. The Grand Councils of Bern, Geneva, St.-Gall, and others, continued to encourage the Old Catholics, who remained in possession of nearly all the Catholic churches in the canton of Bern, and in addition received a faculty of (Old) Catholic theology in connection with the University of Bern. The progress of the Old Catholic movement among the Catholic population appears, however, not to have been considerable, and at the close of the year the organization had not been completed by the election of a bishop.

*See ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA for 1873.

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