words which convey assertions, and speak of some sort of action, and are called verbs. "Can execute and judge of" (observe the use of the conjunction) are also verbs, but the latter has a preposition attached to it, to bring it into a particular relation with the objects that follow; and to both of them is prefixed the word "can," which alters their force from the assertion of action to the assertion of the mere capability of it. In paragraph (2), again, we have for predicates, "in privateness and retiring," in "discourse," etc.,--which are plainly nouns with prepositions; and the quality of predicates is given to them by the employment of the word "is" with each, which changes them from attributives into assertions. "Is" must consequently be called a verb, although it only expresses being and not action. The complex character of these predicates must be observed; and the conjunctions, the demonstrative, and the addition of the attributive, " of business," to one of them (which happens because they are actually nouns) carefully noted.

8. Turning now to the objects, we see in paragraph (1) that they indicate the purpose or effect of the action expressed by the verb; and, in this example, are nouns attached to the verb by the help of prepositions," for delight," "for ornament," etc. In paragraph (3) the first object, "particulars," which is also a noun, indicates that on which the action represented by the verbs "execute and judge of," takes effect. Observe, also, that just as in the words "studies," "plots," and "affairs," the fact that more than one of the kind is meant, is shown by the addition of the letter "s" to the ordinary word; whilst in the instance of " men," the same fact is indicated by the change of the vowel sound from "a" in man.

The second object, "one by one," is of a different kind. It indicates the manner of execution and judgment; and consists of a word signifying number, called a numeral, repeated, with a preposition. "Perhaps," which is the third object, belongs to the predicate, "judge of," only; and is inserted for the purpose of lessening the strength of the assertion conveyed by the predicate. Words like it are called by grammarians adverbs. The second object in the other example contained in this paragraph, "best," is of the same class of words; but, instead of lessening the force of the predicate, it is employed to intensify it.

9.

"From those that are learned," is a very remarkable kind of object; for it contains a complete sentence in itself. The actual object is "those," attached to the predicate by the preposition "from ;" and indicating the source and origin of the action expressed by the verb. "Those" is not, however, the name of anything; but it stands here for "those men ;" and thus partakes of the nature of pronouns, while it also serves demonstratively to point out the specific description of men spoken of. In consequence of its being in part a pronoun, it can have an attributive attached to it, and the sentence, "that are learned," serves as an attributive, to define and describe the "men" particularly intended.

The predicate of this sentence, "are learned," is of the same kind as those in paragraph (2), only an adjective takes the place of the nouns there used. The subject is neither a name nor an epithet, but a kind of pronoun, since it stands for men," and plainly for the same men as "those " did; and, from its having relation thus to a noun already known, is called a relative pronoun. Sentences used in this manner are called accessory sentences, to mark their subordinate character, and their connection with the sentences of which they form parts, distinguished as principal sen

tences.

Only two words remain to be spoken of. "For," at the commencement of this paragraph, shows its connection in meaning with the preceding paragraph; or, more correctly, with the last sentence in it; for which it assigns a reason. "But," on the other hand, separates the two parts of this paragraph, by way of contrust; so that it is manifest that not the first, but the second part of it, contains the reason for the assertion made in the foregoing paragraph. Both words are called conjunctions, from their thus serving to connect otherwise disjoined and independent sentences together; yet it is evident that they are not conjunctions of the same nature as and."

Of these predicates, since they so nearly resemble those of paragraph (2), we only need to observe, that the nouns are used without prepositions to modify their meaning; and the word "a" (before scholar "), contracted from "an," is a numeral, and merely means "one," but in what we may call a somewhat general way.

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The remarkable character of these sentences lies in the subjects, which, as we can perceive at the first glance, are verbs with objects, and yet are not accessory sentences, since no assertions are made. This form of the verb, with the preposition "to" prefixed, differs entirely from the forms we have seen employed in the predicates. Grammarians distinguish all verbs used in this last-named way, as being in the indicative mood; and those with to" before them as being in the infinitive mood. They are, in fact, as we see, used like nouns, only, being verbs, instead of attributives to define them, they have objects to complete them.

66

II. Some of these objects are in forms which we have already noticed; "time" and "judgment" are like "particulars" in paragraph (3), the direct objects of the action of the verbs they follow; "in studies" represents, by a very natural metaphor, that of place, the peculiar circumstances of the action spoken of; "for ornament " precisely resembles the "for delight," &c., of paragraph (1); but the object, "by their rules," expresses the means by which the action of the verb is accomplished. "Them," we see, is a pronoun, as it stands for the word "studies;" and it is the direct object of the verb "use;" it is one of the very few words in our language which have two forms, one employed when it is a subject, "they," and another when it is an object, as we find it here, "them." Here are also two objects belonging to the class of words called adverbs, "much" and "only," both of them expressive of the manner in which the action of the verbs they follow is performed; and the first of them has the adverb "too" prefixed, for the purpose of intensifying the meaning of "much."

The first object has the words "too much" prefixed, as an attributive; "too" being here, as in the instance last noted, an adverb expressive of intensity; but "much," what is termed an indefinite numeral, expressing quantity merely in a general way. There is another of the series with an attribu

In the first part of this paragraph we find the same pronoun used as a subject, which we have just seen in its objective form. Grammarians call these different forms cases; and that now before us, the nominative or subjective case; that in the last paragraph, the accusative or objective case.

13. The first predicate and object are in the same form as several we have seen above; but the second predicate is quite new to us. It signifies that "experience perfects studies," just as "they perfect nature; " but we find what should be the subject following the predicate, and the real object in the place appropriated to the subject; the form of the predicate, too, is changed, and a preposition is inserted between it and the word "experience." We must admit, however, that the passage would lose immensely in compactness, vivacity, and force if it were written thus: "They perfect nature, and experience perfects them;" so that the reason for using this peculiar form is manifest.

It is distinguished by grammarians thus: When the agent of the verb is the subject, the verbal form employed is called active; but when the immediate object of the verb is the agent, the form employed is called passive. And in our tongue all passive forms, just as in this instance, consist of that form of the verb which grammarians call the perfect participle— a form resembling an adjective in this, that it can be used as an attributive; but also partaking of the nature of a verb, inasmuch as the notion it conveys is modified so as to express the completeness of the action. The object following this verb here expresses the means by which what is spoken of the subject is effected; as we have seen before. How the two sentences are combined by the conjunc tion, so that one subject serves for both, we need not more particularly point out.

14. "For," prefixed to the second part of the

paragraph, introduces two reasons for the last assertion respecting the influence of "experience" upon "studies;" as was seen in paragraph (3). Of the first reason, we have only to say, that the real predicate of the sentence is "like," to which the words, "natural plants," are added as an object; and that in the accessory sentence, added as a second attributive to "plants," whilst "pruning" is the immediate object of the verb "need;" "by study" is an object annexed to "pruning." For this last word is another of the participles, properly the imperfect one, which, like the verb, at times requires some attempering object, as we see here.

In the second reason, we must notice, first, an attributive attached to the subject, which we have not met with before, “themselves." It is undoubtedly a pronoun, and it is here used as a most emphatic demonstrative. The objective form of one part of it, "them," does not concern us here. Next, we notice the predicate, which is in a form we have not before seen; but which is only equivalent to the word "give," alone, except that it is rather more emphatic. Grammarians call these words, "do," "can," "are," &c., when employed as in this case, auxiliary, or helping verbs. The first and second objects to this sentence do not require particular notice; and in the third, "too much at large," it is only needful to observe the use of an adjective preceded by a preposition, and having an adverbial phrase, which we have met with, before it, to express the manner of the action.

Of the third object, which is an accessory sentence, more is to be said. It is annexed to the principal sentence by means of a conjunction, "except," which implies some limitation to the meaning of the predicate and the preceding objects; but the form of its own predicate is different from any we have yet seen. Comparing it with the second predicate in this paragraph, "are perfected," we find that it is a passive form; but the employment of "be" instead of "are," shows that the limitation hinges upon the effect of "experience" upon the "studies" spoken of. The forms of verbs which are thus used, to express contingency, have been called by grammarians the subjunctive mood; they are far more rarely used now than they once were, and have, indeed, almost entirely disappeared from our spoken language.

15. Paragraph (6) affords us an opportunity of remarking some other facts in English Grammar:

In the first three sentences there is nothing new to observe, except the use of the conjunction "and," without any abbreviation or condensation; it here serves only to combine all three assertions together, so that the reasons assigned in the remainder of the paragraph are seen to apply equally to all. We may, however, notice the fact, that the association of the several attributives with their objects is effected entirely by juxtaposition; there being nothing in the forms of the words specially to indicate their relation to the words they belong to. But the relation of the predicates to their subjects is shown by the agreement of their forms in one essential particular, called by grammarians number. Thus in paragraph (2) the noun "use," which is the subject, expresses but one thing; and the form of the verb, "is," applies to no more than one; whilst in paragraph (5), "they" (which is equivalent to "studies") and "abilities," referring to more things than one, have the form of the verb "are," which also applies to more than one, in the predicates following them. And similarly here, the subjects being in the plural number, “men,” the verbs in the predicates are also in the plural, "contemn," "admire," "use."

In like manner the place occupied by the word "studies," shows it to be the object of the verb 'contemn;" but the relation of the objects to the predicates in the other two sentences is indicated not only by their position, but (as we have before observed) also, and more certainly, by the form employed, "them."

16. Little needs to be said respecting the first sentence, which is introduced by the conjunction "for," most of its forms being familiar; but we may note the use of the word "own," an adjective rendering the pronoun," their," emphatic. In the last sentence. the subject is not a relative, but a demonstrative pronoun, and its reference to the "use" of "studies" is shown by the order of the words, or, as the grammarians say, by the construction. Besides this, only the attributives to the predicate, which is here a noun, require remark; for two of them, "without them, and above them," are pronouns attached by

prepositions, exactly as we have seen nouns attached, in paragraphs (2), (3), and (4), but showing their subordinate position to the subject, by being in the objective or accusative case; and the third, "won by observation," is a participle with an object expressive of means.

This participle is not formed in the same way as those were formed which we have before met with. "Perfect-ed" and "bound-ed" have been made by the addition of the final syllable; but "won is formed by the change of the vowel in the verb "win.” 17. The last paragraph (7) we thus arrange:

"

Here we have a predicate "read," and a considerable number of objects, but there is no subject; yet the sense is compiete. There is, however, no assertion made by the verb; on the contrary, it conveys a command; and the subject, if expressed, would not occupy the customary place to the left of the predicate, but would come between it and the objects. Grammarians distinguish the forms of verbs which signify commands as the imperative mood. The four principal groups of objects belong to one and the same class, that which expresses the purpose or design of the action; and they are so combined by the conjunctions, nor" and "but," as to enable a single verb to act as predicate to them all. The conjunction, "nor," serves to give to the second and third groups the same negative character that is imparted to the first by the negative object "not; and the fourth is contrasted with all the preceding groups, as stating the design that should be kept in view in reading, by the use of "but."

In the expression, "to take for granted," we have a participle attached to a verb by means of a preposition, as an object needful to complete it; and the next group shows two nouns, talk and discourse," combined by the conjunction "and," so as to spare the repetition of the verb "to find," to which they both serve as "objects."

18. From this illustration, extending only to seven paragraphs-and those neither long nor very greatly complicated-may be seen, both what English grammar actually is, and what a large and clear knowledge of its facts and laws may be attained by the plan of study which we have recommended. It may also be seen how completely language is the product and representation of the thought or meaning of those who speak or write; and how subordinate is the office of the grammarian-limited, in fact, to the elucidation and interpretation of the forms and principles of language, by the most general laws and forms of thought. For not only cannot the grammarian determine what forms shall be used, and what discountenanced and avoided; but he cannot possibly frame his declensions and conjugations, his concords and governments, so as to provide a place for every combination and inflexion and mode of giving expression to the infinitely diversified shades of meaning, even in the language of common life.

19. The following example will show how easy it is to analyze and arrange the most complicated paragraphs, so as to exhibit, without the employment of a single technical term, every fact both of Etymology and Syntax contained in it. The passage is from Locke's "Essay concerning Human Understanding." Book iv., chap. i., § 1.

"God, having designed man for a sociable creature, made him not only with an inclination, and under a necessity, to have fellowship with those of his own kind, but furnished him also with language, which was to be the great instrument and commor tie of society."

...

of society.

Lie for

common tie

RAMMAR is divided into two partsone which treats of the classification, formation, derivation, and inflection of words by themselves, and is called Etymology; and another, which treats of the combination of words into sentences, &c., and is called Syntax.

When languages are analyzed in any state already reached, and not in a state of transition, they become the subject of special grammar belonging to the province of linguistics. Comparative grammar seeks, by comparing the grammars of several languages, to reach the laws of inflection and construction common to them, and finally to all languages. General or historic grammar attempts to explain the growth of language within a specified group.

In this short treatise the formation and derivation of words are not included under Etymology, but are added by way of illustration to the concise History of the English Language, which forms the concluding portion of it. . By this means, not only is some repetition spared, but, being disencumbered of that which is rather curious than useful, this Etymology is rendered more serviceable to those for whom it is specially intended.

Both Etymology and Syntax, it must be observed, are arranged, in the first place, with a view to assist in a study of the English language; and next, to present such an elucidation of its principal facts, and such an interpretation of its most important laws, as shall give to those who consider them attentively, some real and practical knowledge of their own tongue. And with the same intent, those technicalities only have been introduced, and those examples selected, which might be expected to aid in the simplification and explanation of the subject.

ETYMOLOGY.

LETTERS, ETC.

2. There are twenty-six letters in the English Alphabet; which have always been arranged in the following order, and are of these forms in Roman type: A a, B b, Cc, D d, E e, Ff, G g, J j, K k, L l, M m, N n, O o, P p, Q q, Tt, Uu, V v, W w, X x, Y y, z z.

H h, I i,
Hh,
R г, Ss,

The number of sounds to be represented by these letters is estimated at about forty; and, in consequence, several of them have to stand for more sounds than one. It is somewhat remarkable that since this is the case, the letters c, q, and x should be superfluous; the two sounds of c being represented by s and k, as in cell, sell; calends, kalends; 9, being always followed by u, with the sound expressible by kw; and the sounds of x differing in no respect from those of ks, gz, and z (in some words borrowed from the French). It would be of considerable advantage, if symbols for the sounds represented now by the combinations of letters, ch, sh, th, ng, &c., could be devised and introduced; but this is a matter of such great difficulty, as to be almost impossible.

3. The twenty-six letters are divided into two classes-Vowels and Consonants. The vowels are, a, e, i, o, u; and with them w and y ought to be placed. They represent the sounds which are produced by the transmission of the voice through the mouth, whilst the cavity is more or less enlarged in diferent directions. All the rest are named con