Now, in same manner as recommended in previous lesson, take the letter p as a starting point, write all the above vowels preceded by W, before each letter of the round alphabet cut, going round from left to right, both with the long and short sounds above. This will give you plenty of exercise. In many cases you may not be able to make words or sense, but persevere in the sounds.

In like manner, write the following words several times. Repetition gives you confidence and speed.

Weep, warp, wait, wart, wit, wet, wot, watch, wag, weed, wade, wooed, wage, week, weak, wake, walk, woke, ween, wane, wan, weal, wail, wall, waif, woof, weave, wave, wove, wash, wish, wing, etc.

The following suggestions are recommended for trial by students and reporters. Position according to accented syllable: Make all half-lengths of word-signs express it, and in the same position as the full lengths; as, Blet 2 for believe it; Dlet 2, deliver it.

Write words ending in er same as the primitive, with the addition of downward R; as pardoner, Par-Den-Ar, instead of Per-Dee-Ner; Dinner, Den-Ar, instead of Dee-Ner; Tinner, Tenor, Ten-ar, instead of Tee-Ner.

Make all words ending with R, with downward R; and all words with a final vowel following the R, with upward R: but R before J is always Ray. This is an established rule, yet often departed from with perplexing frequency; but it is suggested as a standing and unexceptional rule. So also with Ret and Ard, down or up, as followed or not by a vowel. So also with Lay and El, Let and Eld. As disposal, Dees-Pees-El; retail, Ret-El; down-hearted, Den-Art: retained, Ret-End; ordained, Ard-End, and numerous others. This rule thus provides a distinction between words ending in er, ry, el, and ly, which, in many cases, according to the standard dictionary, are written alike.

Retain the Pitman Ler sign for Ir, instead of Lay-Ar, which is longer, especially in compound words, as Chandler, ChentLer, instead of Chay-End, Lay-Ar.

Write all words ending in tionist with the Steh loop inside the shon hook; as abolitionist, Bee-Layshonst; protectionist, Pret-Kayshonst; prohibitionist, Per-Beeshonst: and as in revolutionist, resurrectionist, secessionist, rationalist.

In advanced writing, ing may be omitted both in nouns and participles, increasing the opportunity for phrasing; as in seeing, doing; loving us, Lay-Vees; doing his, Dees; doing it, Det.

Write half the "I" sign in all phrases and compound words; my idea, eye-sight, thine eyes, eyelid, eyelet.

If in writing word-signs or phrases, the single sign or second word of the phrase is out of position, throw it into position by striking a line either above, through, or below such sign, for first, second, or third position, as the case may be.

Simplify the pronunciation of the syllable oid, signifying like, by ly substituting ty; as petty, betty, tetty, detty, chetty, jetty, ketty, petty, pretty, etc., instead of pet-oid, bed-oid, etc. Write Ther joined, and of understood, instead of double length Veether, to express of their; except when of is emphasized.

Write Retty for on, before P, b, t, d, ch, j, b, v, n, ng, s, Z,

sh, zh, el, th th, and y; Chetty before k, g, Lay, Ar, Ray, w and m.

and

Write Retty for I, above the line, before p, b, t, d, ch, j, k g, s, and th; Chetty before Ar, and Ray; Petty before m, mp.

He, should, and the on the line, by Retty before p, b,'d, t. ch, j; Chetty before k, g, m.

How same as the preceding, below the line.

When new and now commence a phrase, write them below the line without the tick; as nowadays, En-Dees; knew-therewere, Enther-weh.

Write the sounds of ar and er after m without the Ray; as in March, merchant.

Write "society" by S through the preceding word in all possible cases; in a few other instances, join the S, as in 'good society," "modern society," etc.

"I should may be joined to the rest of the verb, before Ray or Lay, by Retty-Chetty. As, I should rather, I should like.

Emphasis and grammar usually suggest and should determinate whether you write "therefore" with a double-length and an Ef hook, or with a Ther tick with a hook. It always comes between commas, and therefore is better distinct. 'There," also, whether by double-length or the Ther sign, is best determined by the force of the emphasis. As, "do, therefore," Dee-Jefty instead Deetherf; it should have, Tee-RettyVee; it should have, Tee-Chefty; there is, therefore, Thers Befty; there is, therefore, Ther-Zeetherf.

An an-tick (not antic) and to tick on the line, and the rest . near and below, may express an con-, to con or com-, as, and conform; to confer; and combat. This when the article is not joined, and the con implied.

A dot on the line may be used for a period, if the ticks are used for the articles, a, a-nd, and the.

Ing thr may omit the disjointed heavy tick, and be expressed by a joined ther tick, or a double-length, omitting the ing, as, doing there, Deether; having there, Vee-Jetty. See Rule 6.

Ing between other words may be omitted, or expressed by writing the following word immediately after, disjoined. Write else always downward, and less upward, for distinction, and according to Rule 3, as, any-body else, nothing-less. If desired, short forms as well as double-lengths of Lay may determine a vowel before it or not, by its inclination to perpendicularity, as in alone, alien, Len nearly vertical; lone, lane, learn, Len, usual, incline.

"Being," if written alone, should be Bee-Ing; but ir phrases simply Bee-as "for the time being," Ef-Tee-Bee

Write half-lengths to express ality, idity, bility, ility, inity -as Frugality, Fer-Gelt; principality, Per-Pelt; timidity, Tee-Med; fluidity, Fel-Det; stability, Stee-Belt; possibility, Pees-Blet; facility, Efs-Elt; futility, Fet-Elt; vicinity, VeesNet. But after. N hook, write Bee, or omit the hook, as in trainable.

Having given the student a good start, we now send him on his way, assuring him that if he is diligent he will have no reason to regret having taken to the study of Phonography.

It would take more space than our limits permit to give a tabular view of all languages: the following summary contains the principal families, and the classes in which they are generally placed :

I. Monosyllabic Class.-Chinese, Siamese, Avanese, Japanese.

II. Shemetic or Semetic Class.-Aræmean (Chaldee Syriac), Hebrew, Phoenician, Arabic.

III. Indo-European or Indo-Germanic Class.— Sanscrit, Celtic, Teutonic or Gothic, Pelasgic or Greco-Latin, Sclavonic, Hungarian, Tartarian or Turkish.

IV. The Polynesian Class, consisting of the dialects spoken in the Indian archipelago and islands of the South Seas.

V. The African Class.-Remains of the ancient. Libyan in the north; Soosoo and Foulah (between the rivers Senegal and Gambia); Ashantee; Amaaric, spoken in parts of Abyssinia; Hottentot, in the south; Caffre, extending from the south along the east coast as far as Delagoa Bay.

VI. Polysynthetic Class, extending from north to south of both continents of America, and comprising Chilian, Peruvian, Brazilian, Mexican, Western dialects of North America, Boreal dialects of North America, etc.

The contrast between the first and the last of these classes presents an apparent anomaly. The Chinese languages have existed among a polished

people from very remote antiquity, and yet are as rude and simple as if they had been just devised for the use of a nation but recently emerged from barbarism; whereas the languages in common use among the wild tribes of America are complex and difficult in their structure, and seem as if they had been invented by a people who had made great advances in civilization. It has consequently been surmised that America was at one time the residence of a civilized people, of whom the Indian tribes are the degenerated remains.

SPECIMENS OF LANGUAGES.

With the view of affording the unlearned reader an idea of the appearance of some of the principal languages, dead and living, we append the passages from the New Testament composing the Lord's Prayer, in Greek, Latin, Italian, Spanish, French, German, Dutch, and English-for the sake of clearness the Greek is printed in the Roman alphabet, the aspirate at the beginning of certain words being represented by the letter h. The reader is called on to observe the difference between the Greek and Latin words, and how evidently the Latin is the parent of the Italian, Spanish, and French, the latter, however, possessing the least resemblance in orthography and arrangement to its original. He will also have an opportunity of comparing the German with its kindred tongue, the Dutch, and both with their relation to the Anglo-Saxon or English.

GREEK.

PATER HEMON ho en tois ouranois, hagiastheto to onoma sou. Eltheto he Basileia sou. Genetheto to thelema sou, hōs en ourano, kai epi tes ges. Ton arton hemōn ton epiousion dos hemin semeron. Kai aphes hemin ta opheilemata hemōn, hōs kai hemeis aphiemen tois opheiletais hemōn. Kai me eisenengkes hemas eis peirasmon, alla rusai hemas apo tou ponerou

heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass against us. And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil. For thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory, for ever and ever. Amen.

Language, in the largest sense of the term, may be defined as the means by which thought is expressed. Thought, as is well known, may be expressed by means of mute signs, as frowns, sighs, kind looks, gestures of the body, or by inarticulate sounds, as groans, cries, sobs, laughter. The first are usually called natural language, and the second inarticulate language; and these means of expression partly belong to the lower animals. Finally, there is articulate language, peculiar to man alone, and consisting of a multitude of sounds, each of which represents a distinct idea. To this last mode of expression, generally known by the simple term language, our atten tion is for the present to be directed.

ORIGINAL FORMATION OF

LANGUAGE.

It is sufficiently clear that the vocal organs of man are con stituted with a view to his expressing himself by speech. The larynx, epiglottis, pharynx, tongue, palate, and lips, are all of them framed in such a manner as to show incontestably that they were designed for producing such sounds as we emplo in articulate language.

The first language of a thild is that of inarticulate sounds; it cries when it is hungry, screams when it is angry, and moans when it is in pain. The strong resemblance which subsists between the words in different languages expressive of the first social ties, is worthy of observation. Thus the word mother is

Em and am in Hebrew and Arabic.

Madr..Persian
Matr..Sanscrit.

Meter..Greek.

Mater ..Latin.
Madre ..Italian.
Mère ..French.

Modor in Anglo-Saxon.
Moder ..Swedish.
Moder ..Danish.
Moeder ..Dutch.
Mutter ..German.

Mater..Russian.
Mathair..Celtic.

When the primitive men, advancing from early necessities and simple tangible ideas, found it necessary to have words to represent the abstractions of the mind, they still proceeded according to the dictates and analogies of nature.

In all languages, every term expressive of mental operations is borrowed from the material world. Some of the terms thus applied are signally appropriate.

In the present stage of language we have become so habitu ated to the use of terms applied metaphorically, that we seldom reflect on their original import. There are many instances in which the metaphorical word remains, when its primary signification has been forgotten. For instance, the word capricious does not suggest the idea of a goat, although it is derived from the Latin caper, a goat, to denote the character of a person who bounds from subject to subject, without paying due attention to any, like a goat, which bounds from rock to rock, without settling long in any one spot.

VERY position in life demands letterwriting. A letter is the great link beween parents and children, between lovers, between friends; while in busi'ness relations it makes fortunes, or mars them. A good letter must, firstly, be absolutely correct in every mechanical detail; then style comes into question; then the matter, which must be intelligible to the meanest as well as the highest understanding. The great art of letterwriting is to be able to write gracefully and with ease, and no letter should wear the appearance of having been laboriously studied.

The first point to be observed in your letter is that you write in a clear, legible hand, a hand that anybody and everybody can read. You may fill your pages with the most exquisite and sparkling ideas, but if they cannot be read except to the torture of the peruser, your diamond thoughts lose all their glitter, and people to whom you write, instead of being anxious to receive a letter from you, will mentally groan at the very idea of its receipt, knowing the toil and trouble that awaits them in its perusal.

Be patient, then, and plod on steadily until you write a bold, clear, clean hand, and never let a scrap of your writing pass from you that is not carefully executed.

Never erase. It is much better, though wearying the task, to commence all over again. An erasure is a sore to the eye.

Orthography is next to be considered. Bad spelling is disgraceful, and many people spell badly from simple carelessness. Read carefully the works of the best authors. Write extracts from these works,

Use

and you will intuitively spell correctly. Your sense will become offended at a misspelt word. the simplest language. Always have a dictionary (pocket) beside you, but never consult it unless you are in doubt. Once consulted, you should remember the word ever afterward. Never divide your words into syllables at the end of the line unless you cannot help it. If you have space for the first syllable, let your hyphen be bold. Thus :

It is sometimes a great con

solation to me that, etc., etc. A word of one syllable must not be divided. Bring it bodily over to the next line.

Compound words must be divided into the simple words composing them. Thus: War-whoop, not warw-hoop; bread-stuff, not breadst-uff.

GRAMMAR.

Place your verbs correctly at all hazards. Never use the adverb for the adjective, or the adjective for the adverb. Never take liberties with the relative pronouns, or mingle in dire confusion tenses and moods. A careful study of the admirable grammar in this cyclopedia will keep the letter writer in the straight path.

PUNCTUATION.

In order to have the meaning of words readily understood, it becomes necessary to divide those. words into paragraphs, sentences and clauses, by means of punctuation. As an instance of the absence of punctuation and the farcical result, just read this :

Lost on Broadway on Thursday evening last an umbrella by an elderly gentleman with a carved ivory head.

A period is used to denote that a sentence is complete; as, "A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush."

The dash is used to denote a sudden pause, or abrupt change of sense; as, "I have loved her madly, wildly-but why speak of her?"

The interrogation point is used only after a question; as, "Why did you say so?"

The interjection point is used only to denote an exclamation; as, "Alas! all my joys have flown!"

The parenthesis is used to enclose a portion of a sentence which if left out would not destroy the sense; as, "I value this flower (a faded flower) very highly."

The apostrophe is used to mark the possessive case, and also the omission of a letter or letters in a word; as, "Frederick's hair is black," or, "Gen'l Grant is getting old."

The caret is used to mark an omitted word, which word must be written immediately above it; as,

wet

"What a day!"

The hyphen is used to connect compound words, and at the end of a line shows that more syllables are carried over to the next line.

Quotation marks are used before and after every quotation, to separate and define it; as, “Many are called, but few are chosen."

CAPITAL LETTERS.

The capital letters only set apart the sentences and paragraphs, but while their proper use adds greatly to the beauty of an epistle, their omission or improper use will make the pages present a perfectly absurd appearance.

Begin every paragraph with a capital letter. Begin every sentence following a period with a capital letter.

Begin all proper names with a capital letter. Begin all titles, as President, Vice-President, Gen eral, Doctor or Captain, with a capital letter.

Begin all names of places, as Chicago, Long Branch, Niagara, with a capital letter.

Begin the words, North, South, East, West, and their compounds and abbreviations, as North-east, S. W., with a capital letter.

Begin the names of the Deity and Heaven, or the pronoun used for the former, as, in His mercy— Thou, Father, with a capital letter.

Begin all adjectives formed from the names of places or points of the compass, as English, Northern, with a capital letter.

ter.

Begin every line of poetry with a capital let

Begin all quotations with a capital letter.

Begin all titles of books, and usually each impor tant word of the title, as, Bancroft's History of the United States.

Begin the name of any historical event, as the Civil War, with a capital letter.

The pronoun I and the interjection O must invariably be written with a capital letter.

Begin all the names of the months, as June, April, with a capital letter.

Begin all addresses, as, Dear Sir-Dear Madam, with a capital letter.

Capital letters must never be placed in the middle of a word; never, except in accordance with the foregoing rules, in the middle of a sentence.