of more pretentious structures. The small kilns also can be "turned" (that is, filled, coaled, and emptied) in a shorter time than the larger kilns. The advantages of charcoal as a metallurgical fuel are in its purity and porosity. As used, it is mainly pure carbon, with a small percentage of ash and a varying The cost of constructing kilns varies, according to size amount of moisture absorbed from the atmosphere. and location, from $10 to $15 per cord capacity. The Owing to its bulk and porosity, it keeps the materials conical kilns ordinarily will hold 25 to 50 cords; the in a blast-furnace from packing too closely, and its large beehive kilns, 35 to 60 cords; the rectangular kilns, 50 exposed surfaces are rapidly oxidized. to 100 cords. RETORTS.-The third method of manufacturing charcoal is in closed vessels, the carbonization being effected by extraneous heat; the yield of charcoal under proper treatment is approximately equal to the volume of the wood charged, 50 to 70 bushels being obtained from a cord of wood. Generally, where retorts are used, the acetic vapors arising from the carbonization process are collected, condensed, and converted into methylic alcohol, commercial acetates, and tar. The collection of the acetic vapors is not, however, confined to the use of closed vessels. A number of rectangular kilns are connected by exhausters through trunks, the acetic vapors being utilized as above described. Eighty thousand cords of wood are converted every year into charcoal by this method under Dr. Pierce's patents. The retorts are of three general classes: (a) horizontal, either iron cylinders with one end closed by a suitable door and placed over a fireplace, or a semi-cylindrical iron bottom, forming, with a firebrick arch above it, a horizontal cylinder; (b) vertical cylinders of iron Missouri ................ Scale 447 and foot FIG. -Mathieu Retort. placed in furnaces with flues surrounding them: the cylinders are either lifted bodily out of the furnaces and allowed to cool while others are being heated, or the charcoal is drawn out by a cage within the retort; (c) inclined retorts are designed to diminish the labor of filling and emptying the horizontal form, and the most approved are crescent-shaped in cross-section, to secure practically uniform thickness of wood to be acted upon. The illustration (fig. 5) exhibits what is known as the Mathieu retort. E is the opening for filling, and F the opening for emptying, the retort; both are closed by lids suitably secured; G is the pipe to carry off the gaseous products of distillation; and H the tar-drip. Batteries of a large number of retorts are now placed at some of the more important iron-works. Several of these plants have been erected to utilize the waste wood from large saw-mills, etc., and transform it into fuel for metallurgical purposes. Acetic acid acts energetically on iron, but as the heat of the retorts is generally sufficient to cause volatilization, they are not destroyed rapidly. Section on AB Dy 2680 the Winchester heaped bushel of 1.556 cubic feet are most in favor. Much charcoal is now sold by weight, 20 pounds being counted as a bushel of 2748 cubic inches of mixed hard and soft woods. The density of charcoal varies not only with the density of the wood from which it is made, but the process of manufacture. Rapidity of carbonization also affects it. Under similar conditions charcoal produced from hard woods is heavier than that made from soft woods, and that made by slow carbonization is generally heavier than that produced rapidly. The yield of charcoal per cord of wood is influenced greatly by the size and character of timber used. A pile of 4 by 4 by 8 feet is uniformly adopted as a cord, but the volume of solid wood is much greater where the sticks are large, straight, and free from projections. The following percentages of solid wood in piles was determined by the forestry department of Prussia: For "timber" For "log (fire) wood" (over ..................... 6" diameter)... For "billet" (3" to 6" diam eter). For "brush" wood (less than 3" diameter)...... For " "roots". 74'07 p. c. (=80 c. ft. per cord). (Vide Journal of U. S. Association of Charcoal-Iron Workers, vol. iii. p. 20.) Marcus Bull, in his experiments, found 71 cubic feet plenum or solid dry wood and 564 cubic feet interstices in a carefully-piled cord of perfectly dry wood. These experiments, which were described in a paper read be fore the American Philosophical Society April 7, 1826, are epitomized in the following table. The charring was the Winchester standard, 2688 cubic inches. (See also done in meilers or heaps; the bushel used approximated Sargent's tables, in the article FUEL.) Pinus inops.. White ash...... Apple tree.......................................... Butternut................................................ White elm.................................................. Scrub black oak.. Barren oak.... Rock chestnut oak.. White pine........ Lombardy poplar...... Wild service... Sycamore Black walnut........... Swamp whortleberry. Fraxinus americana....... Carpinus americana.... Pinus strobus.... Liriodendron tulipifera....... Populus dilatata................ Sassafras officinalis....... Amelanchier canadensis.. Platanus occidentalis... Vaccinium corymbosum....... 752 3361 Analyses of Woods, by M. Eugène Chevandier. *720 3218 747 *580 2592 24.85 *357 *703 3142 22.16 *400 *634 2834 19.69 •413 1.000 4469 26.22 *625 *949 4241 25.22 *637 *829 3705 22.90 *509 26.78 848 *784 3505 21.40 *368 19.36 750 *602 2691 22.77 *374 19'68 613 19 *455 23.94 611 *663 2963 24.02 *457 24.05 *644 2878 21.43 *431 22.68 617 27 *597 2668 20.64 *370 19:47 551 *605 2704 21.59 *406 21.36 584 *885 3955 22.76 *481 25.31 900 *855 3821 21.62 *401 21.10 826 *775 3464 21.50 *437 22-99 745 3339 23.17 *392 20.63 747 3339 22.22 *436 22.94 742 *728 3254 728 3254 18.79 644 21.05 696 21-73 558 32 89 1172 33.52 1070 712 774 23.80 *387 20.36 774 22.43 ⚫400 21.05 630 Quercus ferruginea.......... Quercus prinus monticola.... Quercus prinus acuminata... ⚫678 *653 Quercus falcata......... Diospyros virginiana...................... *694 3102 3030 20.86 *436 22.94 632 2919 21.60 *295 15.52 631 *548 2449 22.95 *362 19.05 562 •711 3178 23.44 *469 24.68 745 *551 2463 23.75 ⚫333 17.52 585 *478 2137 24.88 ⚫385 20.26 532 *426 1904 26.76 *298 16.68 510 *418 1868 24.35 *293 15:42 455 563 2516 21.81 ⚫383 20.15 549 *397 1774 25 *245 12.89 444 *618 2762 22.58 *427 22:47 624 *887 3964 22.62 *594 31.26 897 *535 2391 23.60 ⚫374 19.68 564 22 687 31 26.57 783 29 22.37 *447 23.52 694 Cord. 73 Percentage of Water Expelled. Composition. Water expelled from one hundred parts of wood. oxide in the products of combustion, and indirectly the quantity of oxygen consumed. The results of these experiments are given in Table II. Red charcoal; Fr. charbon roux; Ger. Rothkohle. Sauvage found by experiments that a perfectly charred cal does not give the largest quantity of combustible matter in the smallest volume, but, on the contrary, that this relative quantity increases to a certain point of the process, and then begins to decrease. After the process had been conducted for five hours he claimed to have attained the greatest yield of combustible matter. His results are exhibited in Table III. After five and a half hours the water and acetic acid are evaporated, and the product is an imperfectly charred coal of dark-red or brown color. This product, without water and acetic acid, still contains the tar and combustible gases, both of which contribute to a higher heating capacity. Prof. Ledebur burned weighed quantities of charcoal at different temperatures with measured volumes of air, directly determining the amounts of carbonic acid and 1100°.......... The result here given for the meiler is rather low for good practice. A company in Mainz, says Percy, prepares wood for fuel by heating it to a degree sufficient to cause incipient carbonization and change its color to reddish brown. The name Rothholz is given to this product. Fresenius recommends it as being easily ignited, and therefore an excellent material for lighting fires; it may be conveniently conveyed and stored, and on burning produces a copious flame and is capable of developing intense heat. Percy states that the difference in chemical composition between brown (or red), and black charcoal is of itself sufficient to prove that the former has less heating power than the latter. Brown charcoal contains more oxygen and less carbon than black. (J. B.) CHARITON, the county-seat of Lucas co., Iowa, is on the Chariton River, 55 miles S. of Des Moines, on the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy Railroad, with branches N. to Des Moines and S. to St. Joseph and Kansas City. It has four hotels, a national bank, a private bank, one daily and two weekly newspapers, nine churches, a normal school, and three fine school buildings with seventeen departments. It has a foundry, a railroad repair-shop, plough-factory, butter-tub factory, and two flour-mills. It is well laid out, with shady streets, and has a park and a good fire department. It was settled in 1847 and incorporated in 1871. Its property is valued at $781,000; its public debt is $3000, and its yearly expenses are $5000. Population, chiefly of American birth, 2648. See Vol. V. CHARITIES, in law, are gifts and devises of land and property for general public uses, to be p. 343 Am, applied in accordance with the intention of ed. (p. 401 the donor as expressed in the deed of gift Edin. ed.). or will. Such devises or gifts may be made for the relief of aged, impotent, and poor people; for the maintenance of hospitals or homes for the sick and maimed, and for disabled soldiers, seamen, and marines; for the foundation and support of schools of learning, homes for the support and education of orphans, societies for the aid and support of decayed tradesmen and actors. They may be also made to a municipal corporation for the erection of a town-house for the transaction of town business, or to a municipal corporation for the erection of a suitable college wherein poor orphans may be supported and educated. The statute of 43 Elizabeth c. 4 is considered the principal source of the law of charitable uses, and has given rise to various questions upon the subject; and to the very extensive jurisdiction of the chancery all such matters are referred. This statute and its preamble designate and enumerate the uses which shall be deemed charitable; and it is now the established rule that no uses shall be deemed charitable and under the protection of the law except such as come within the word or the obvious intent of the statute. It also provides that all charities shall be inquired into and enforced by a commission issuing out of chancery. After the passage of this statute it became a vexed question whether the court of chancery could grant relief by original bill, or whether the remedy was confined to the process by commission; but in the reign of Charles II. it was decided in favor of the original bill in chancery. In England, if a bequest be for a charity, it matters not how uncertain the persons or objects may be, or whether the persons who are to take are in esse or not, or whether the legatee be a corporation capable in law of taking or not; the court will sustain the legacy, and give it effect according to its own principles, and where a literal execution becomes inexpedient or impracticable it will execute it cy pres. In former times so strong was the disposition of chancery to assist charities that in equity assets were held to satisfy charitable uses before debts or legacies, though assets at law were held to satisfy debts and legacies before charities; and this was but in conformity to the civil law, by which charitable leg acies were preferred to all others. It is laid down in the books of authority that the king in England, as parens patriæ, has the general superintendence of all charities not regulated by charter, which he exercises by the keeper of his conscience, the chancellor; and therefore the attorney-general, at the relation of some informant, when it is necessary, files ex-officio an information in the court of chancery to have the charity properly established and applied. The statute of 9 Geo. II. c. 36 has very materially narrowed the extent and operation of the statute of Elizabeth. During the dominion of the English Crown over the colonies in America these principles became a part of the system of jurisprudence here, but after the establishment of their independence some States entirely abolished the operation of the principles of mortmain, and others of whose system the statute was a recognized part modified its operation by endowing their courts with extraordinary chancery powers over charities; and now, with but a few exceptions, the laws of the States permit property to pass by will or deed for charitable uses, whether it be real or personal; and these laws have settled the vexed question whether a religious purpose was a charitable purpose by employing both terms, "religious and charitable uses. Their courts are vested, by legislative enactment or inherent common-law jurisdiction, with authority to see nch devises properly executed and the intention of the donor carried into effect. As the States have the exclusive power of making and interpreting laws governing their own citizens, it becomes necessary, in order to treat fully the subject of charity, to view each State wherein that subject is the matter of jurisprudence by itself, and consider its peculiar application of the law to the subject. In the State of Alabama the courts of chancery have Jurisdiction over bequests for charitable uses by virtue of their original common-law powers, and in recognizing the validity of such, without invoking the aid of the Eng lish statute, hold that dedication to religious or public uses may be sustained. though it be limited only by the wants of the community or during the pleasure of the person making it.. In Connecticut the legislature has the power of an English court of chancery over charitable devises, and may direct the sale of the real estate, though the devisee may have directed that the estate should never be sold, and in cases where the lapse of time or change in the condition of the property makes it prudent and beneficial to the charity to alien the specific lands and invest the proceeds in other securities, providing, however, that no deviation from the gift be made; and so absolute is this power that the courts of the United States have no right to revise the facts upon which the legislature has seen fit to exercise such power. Here a devise to a town directing that all the interest of the devise shall be laid out in repairitable use under the statute, as is also a devise for school ing the highways and bridges of the town is a valid charpurposes. In Georgia the principles of the statute of Elizabeth have been adopted and constitute a part of the law of the State, departing from it only, however, by not suffering an equitable interest to fail for want of a trustee to support it; and the superior courts have an inherent jurisdiction over bequests to all charitable uses and trusts and capable of being executed. In Illinois the courts have where the same are definite and specific in their objects adopted and administered charities upon cy-pres principles, only with the view of sustaining and carrying into effect the intention of the donor, but without authority to change the same; and the charity must be accepted upon the terms proposed; but if the intention of the donor becomes impracticable, it may be altered cy pres. In Maryland the of the declaration of rights prefixed to the constitution of the State goes so far as to render valid a dedication of lands to public and pious uses, though there be no specific grantee or trustee. It is held that a bequest of the income of property to be applied towards feeding, clothing, and educating the poor orphans belonging to a certain congregation, and void, being too indefinite to be carried into effect. In Iowa of a certain county attending school at a certain place, is the courts of chancery have no other than judicial power, and cannot give effect to gifts and devises in those cases where no particular object is designated and no trustee named or person appointed to select the object, and which is administered by the chancellor of England as parens patriæ; and if a testator ineffectually dedicates his property to charity or in such manner that the devise is void, the State possesses no prerogative to interfere and dispose of the property. In Maine the general provisions of the statute of Elizabeth are in force, but as the jurisdiction of the supreme court over such cases of trust is not derived exclusively from that statute, it is not restricted by it. When a trust is created by a bequest for charitable puris to be regulated by trustees specially appointed for that poses, if the charity is definite in its objects, is lawful, and purpose, the supreme court of the State has jurisdiction over it independently of the statute of Elizabeth, and will cause it to be executed whether the uses designated are or are not within the terms of that statute; and in cases where there is no trustee to execute the trust the court of equity will see the use executed by the appointment of trustee for that purpose. In Massachusetts the statute law bestows upon the supreme court all the authority of a court of general chancery jurisdiction for the purposes of hearing and determining questions of devises for chari table purposes, or to permit such alterations in the mode prescribed by the donor as will best promote the general interest of the charity. In this State a gift designated to science, and the useful arts, without any particular referpromote the public good by the encouragement of learning, ence to the poor, is a charity, as also a gift or bequest to the poor of a particular church is a public eharity. These trusts or charitable uses may be perpetuated in their duration, and may leave the mode of application and the selection of particular objects to the discretion of the trustees; also, a corporation established for the support of poor and old women, which devotes all the funds to the support of such women in its home, and is no source of income to its members, is a charitable corporation, although statute of Elizabeth is not in force, but the third section It requires a payment of money as a requisite for admitting a woman to its home. In New Hampshire a gift of real or personal estate to promote education is a cha: ity, and the laws give and allow such charities. This principle of the law governing charitable uses was most emphatically laid down by the Supreme Court of the United States in the great case of "The Trustees of Dartmouth College vs. Woodward." This case was an action of trover brought in the State court, in which the plaintiff, Woodward, declared for two books purporting to contain the records of all the doings and proceedings of the trustees of the college from the establishment of the corporation until Oct. 7, 1816, the original charter or letters patent constituting the college, the common seal, and four volumes purporting to contain the charges and accounts in favor of the college. The college was founded by a charter granted by the British Crown dated Dec. 13, 1769. After the college had been fully established for the period of fifty years the legislature of New Hampshire passed two acts which in point of fact abolished the old corporation and established a new one. The first of these acts made the twelve trustees under the charter, and nine other individuals to be appointed by the governor and council, a corporation by a new name (Dartmouth University), and to this new corporation transferred all the property, rights, liberties, powers, and privileges of the old corporation, with further power to establish new colleges and an institute, and to apply all or part of the funds to these purposes, subject to the power and control of a board of twenty-five overseers to be appointed by the governor and council. The second act makes further provisions for executing the objects of the first, and authorizes the treasurer of the trustees of the college to retain and hold their property against their will. Daniel Webster, for the college, raised the question before the court of the validity and constitutionality of these statutes, and Chief-Justice Marshall, in delivering the opinion of the court, sustained his view, holding "that the college was a private eleemosynary institution whose funds consisted entirely of private donations; that the corporation was not invested with any portion of political power, and did not partake in any degree in the administration of the civil government. It was the institution of a private corporation for general charity. The charter was a contract to which the donors, the trustees of the corporation, and the Crown were the original parties, and it was made on a valuable consideration for the security and disposition of property. Contracts of this kind, creating these charitable institutions, are most reasonably within the purview and protection of the Constitution. That the college was not liable to the control of the legislature, and that the acts of the legislature of New Hampshire altering the charter in a material respect without the consent of the corporation was an act impairing the obligation of the charter, and consequently unconstitutional and void." This decision, according to Kent, did more than any other single act proceeding from the authority of the United States to throw an impregnable barrier around all rights and franchises derived from the grant of government, and to give solidity and inviolability to the literary, charitable, religious, and commercial institutions of our country. In North Carolina the statute of 43 Elizabeth is in force, and by virtue of it the court of chancery has jurisdiction of all charities; but a charity under this statute must be 30 described in the will that the law will at once acknowledge it to be such; for otherwise it reverts to the heir-atlaw or next of kin. The constitution of this Stace does not prohibit the creation of a permanent fund for charitable purposes. In Ohio the doctrines founded upon the statute of Elizabeth, ch. 4, in relation to charitable trusts to corporations, either municipal or private, have been adopted by the courts of equity, but not by express legislation, and dedications of lands to charitable and religious purposes are valid without any grantee to whom the fee could be conveyed; such gifts to charitable uses receive the most liberal construction. In Tennessee a charity is a gift to a general public use and the maintenance of universities, colleges, academies, and common schools and other lawful institutions are charitable uses. Such provisions of the statute of Elizabeth as were the law before the enactment of that statute, and are applicable to our institutions, are in force here as a part of the common law. In Virginia the statute of Elizabeth in regard to charitable uses was repealed in 1792, but the code declares that conveyances and devises to charitable use are void. In New York the statute of Elizabeth was repealed in 1788, and the power to enforce charities is now in the court of chancery by virtue of its original constitution; but charities within the definition of that statute will be enforced even where the beneficiaries are too vaguely designated to be able to claim for themselves. This jurisdiction rests on the understanding that such charities are trusts, and the specific intent of the donor will be enforced if it can be ascertained and does not come under the provisions of the statutes abolishing all uses and trusts except such as are authorized and modified. The prohibitions of the statute extends oniy to private trusts and accumulations for remote posterity. A bequest for the use of the poor of a town is not prohibited by those statates, nor a bequest for the use of the poor ministers of an incorporated religious society. Nor do the provisions of the revised statutes concerning "expectant estates" apply to property given in perpetuity to religious or charitable corporations, as the cy-pres doctrine, where applied to charitable uses, has never been held in this State. A bequest for accumulation for the purpose of the erection of a church cannot be supported as an absolute gift to take effect immediately. In Pennsylvania the statute of Eliz abeth concerning charitable uses does not extend, but its principles, as applied by chancery in England, obtain here by force of our own common law, and relief may be given so far as the powers of the court extend. The peculiar equities commonly ascribed to the operation of the statute are fully administered here when means are found adequate to the purpose; and in this respect the competency has been much enlarged by the laws extending the equitable powers of the tribunals; but a court of equity will not interfere with the exercise of the discretion vested in the trustee of a charity in the distribution of the fund if exercised in good faith. In the administration of a charity unreasonable or impracticable directions in the will in regard to the management of the property will be desig nated, on the doctrine of cy pres, which to that extent is recognized in Pennsylvania. The most important case establishing the doctrine of charitable uses in this country is that which came under the will of Stephen Girard, which, with that of the Dartmouth College, are the leading cases on that subject. Stephen Girard died in Philadelphia in the year 1831, leaving an estate of some $7,000,000. After sundry bequests he left by his will the real and personal residue of his estate to "the mayor, aldermen, and citizens of Philadelphia " for the purpose of constructing and furnishing a college and outbuildings for the education and maintenance of not less than 300 orphans, who might come from any part of the State of Pennsylvania (those from the city of Philadelphia to have a preference) or from the cities of New York and New Orleans, said residuary estate amounting to the sum of $2,000,000. The heirs of Mr. Girard contested the validity of the trusts by reason of the uncertainty of the designation of the beneficiaries of the legacy. They also contended that the corporation of the city of Philadelphia was not authorized by its charter to administer the trusts of this legacy, and that the intentions of the testator would be defeated by the substitution of any other trustee, and that the plan of education proposed is anti-Christian, because in said will the testator forbids a minister of any creed to preach or teach in the college; it is therefore repugnant to the constitution and laws of Pennsylvania. The provisions of the will were defended in a most masterly argument by Horace Binney of Philadelphia, and his views were sustained by the Supreme Court of the United States. It was decided that the trusts created by the will were valid, and that the city of Philadelphia under its charter is invested with powers and rights to take property upon trust for charitable purposes which are not otherwise obnoxious to legal animadversion; that the trusts mentioned in the will of Stephen Girard are of an eleemosy nary nature and charitable uses in a judicial sense; that |