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financial crash sooner or later in our enlightened land with its hundreds of millions in paper-money operations and promises.

The public revenue in New Netherland embraced two descriptions, provincial and municipal: the former consisting of the export duty on furs, the impost on European goods, with the tenths of agricultural produce, butter, cheese, etc.; the latter of an excise duty on liquors and slaughtered cattle. In the year 1655, the duty on exported furs is stated at twenty-two thousand guilders, or eight thousand dollars. The expenses of the Government became very large, especially from the Indian wars, which also cut off the supplies of furs; so that by the close of Stuyvesant's administration, there was a deficit of fifty thousand florins, or twenty thousand dollars. The municipal revenue arising from the liquor excise was of two kinds, the tapsters and the burghers-the first paying a duty of four florins a ton on home-brewed, and six on foreign beer; eight florins a hogshead on French; and four on Spanish wine, brandy, or other spirits. These rates were doubled in 1662. The income of New Amsterdam from these sources was estimated at twenty-five thousand guilders. The Company in Holland had now expended twelve tons of gold in the settlement of New Netherland over all the public receipts; and now (1664), when some return was expected for this large outlay, foreigners seized and possessed themselves of all the benefits resulting from such expenditures.

We again resume the thread of our narrative. The war which broke out in 1672 between the English and the Dutch, and which was chiefly carried on by the navies of the two powers, occasioned apprehensions for the safety of the Province of New York; and Governor Lovelace the successor of Nicholls, the first English Governor, made preparations for a demonstration of that character on the part of the Dutch. Nor were his fears unfounded, although, some months elapsing without any appearance of the enemy, he allowed himself to fall into a fatal sense of security, and accordingly disbanded the levies, while he himself departed on a visit to the Eastern colonies, leaving the fort in charge of Captain John Manning. The Dutch, however, were not asleep; nor had they relinquished their design. Determined to regain New Amsterdam, at all hazards, they fitted out a fleet of five ships, commanded by Admirals Benckes and Evertsen, with Captains Colve, Boes, and Van Zye. On the 29th of July, 1673, they appeared off Sandy Hook; and quietly sailing up the bay, and anchoring before Staten Island, soon appeared opposite the Battery. The fleet then opened a heavy cannonade upon the city, at the same time that Captain Colve, landing with six hundred men, drew up in order of battle on the Commons, ready to march into the city. At a given signal the men marched down Broadway, whereupon Captain Manning surrendered the fort, on condition that its garrison should march out with all the honors of war. This condition having been granted, the Dutch troops again possessed the fort and city. New York received the name

of New Orange, and the fort itself the name of Fort William Hendrick. Governor Lovelace, who, meanwhile, had hastened back from his pleasuretour, was allowed to return with the Dutch Admiral only; however, to receive from the English Government a severe reprimand for cowardice and treachery, and to learn that his estates had been confiscated to the Duke of York.

Captain Colve, now in command of the Province of New Netherland, received a commission from Benckes and Evertsen to govern the new territory. His rule, though brief, was energetic. He at once took measures to improve the defenses of the fort; and in October, 1673, we find it stated in one of his orders, that the fortifications had then, at great expense and labor to the citizens and inhabitants, been brought "to perfection." Anthony De Milt was appointed Schout, with three burgomasters and five schepens. The entire city assumed the appearance of a military post, the Commons (the present park) becoming the paradeground. A wall or palisade was placed around it, running from Trinity Church along Wall street—hence its name—and block-houses protected the settlement on every side. Every day the Schout reviewed the military, before the "Stadt Huys," at the head of Coenties Slip. At six in the evening he received the city keys, and with a guard of six men locked the public gates, and stationed the sentinels. He unlocked the gates at sunrise. The city at this period numbered three hundred and twentytwo houses.

But the second administration of the Dutch was destined to be of short duration. On the 9th of February, 1674, the treaty of peace between England and the States-General was signed at Westminister; and the Dutch, having discovered and possessed the beautiful conntry of New Netherlands for almost sixty years, were now, once and forever, dispossessed of it. On that day the old fort again became "Fort James,” having surrendered to Sir Edmund Andrews, who had been appointed Governor by the Duke of York.

Before closing this section, and bidding farewell entirely to New York under the Dutch rule, it seems fitting to glance somewhat minutely at the social manners and customs of our early Dutch ancestors.

The Dutch of New Amsterdam were distinguished for their good nature, love of home, and cordial hospitality. Fast young men, late hours, and fashionable dissipation were unknown. There was, nevertheless, plenty of opportunity for healthful recreation. Holidays were abundant, each family having some of its own, such as birthdays, christenings, and marriage anniversaries. Each season, too, introduced its own peculiar and social festivals-the "Quilting," "Apple-Raising," and Husking Bees." The work on such occasions was soon finished, after which the guests sat down to a supper, well supplied with chocolate and waffles-the evening terminating with a merry dance. Dancing was a

favorite amusement.

The slaves danced to the music of their rude instruments, in the markets; while the maidens and youths practiced the same amusement at their social parties, and around the annual May-Pole, on the "Bowling Green."

Besides such holidays, five public or national festivals were observed. These were, Kersteydt, or Christmas; Nieuw Jar, or New Year; Paas, or Passover; Pinkter, Whitsuntide; and Santa Claus, St. Nicholas, or CrisKinkle Day. The morn of the Nativity was hailed with universal salutations of a "Merry Christmas"-a good old Knickerbocker custom which has descended unimpaired to us. Next, in the day's programme, came "Turkey Shooting"-the young men repairing either to the "Beekman Swamp," or on the Common (Park), for this amusement. Each man payed a few stivers* for a chance," when the best shot obtained the prize. The day was also commemorated, as it is at the present day, by family dinners, and closed with domestic gayety and cheerfulness.

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New-Year's Day was devoted to the universal interchange of visits. Every door in New Amsterdam was thrown wide open, and a warm welcome extended to the stranger as well as the friend. It was considered a breach of established etiquette to omit any acquaintance in these annual calls, by which old friendships were renewed, family differences settled, and broken or neglected intimacies restored. This is another of the excellent customs of the olden times that still continues among New Yorkers; and its origin, like many others, is thus traced exclusively to the earliest Hollanders.

Paas, or Easter, was a famous festival among the Dutch, but is now almost forgotten, except by the children, who still take considerable interest in coloring eggs in honor of the day. The eggs were found then on every table. This old festival, however, is rapidly passing away, and like Pinkter will soon be forgotten.

Santa Claus, however, was the day of all others with the little Dutch folk, for it was sacred to St. Nicholas-the tutelar divinity of New Amsterdam, who had presided at the figure-head of the first emigrant ship that reached her shores. The first church erected within her fort was also named after St. Nicholas. He was, to the imagination of the little people, a jolly, rosy-cheeked, little old man, with a slouched hat, large Flemish nose, and a very long pipe. His sleigh, loaded with all sorts of Christmas gifts, was drawn by swift reindeer; and, as he drove rapidly over the roofs of the houses, he would pause at the chimneys, to leave presents in the stockings of the good children; if bad, they might expect nothing but a switch or leather-strap. In this way the young Knickerbockers became models of good behavior and propriety. They used to sing a suitable hymn on the occasion, one verse of which is here

* A stiver was equal to nearly two cents in U. S. money. Forty of them made a guilder.

given, for the benefit of those readers who may wish to know how it sounded in Dutch:

"Sint Nicholaas, myn goden vriend,

Ik heb u altyd wel gediend;
Als gy my nu wot wilt geben,
Fal ik dienen als myn leven."

TRANSLATION.

"Saint Nicholas, my dear, good friend,
To serve you ever was my end;
If you me now something will give,
Serve you, I will, as long as I live."

'Dinner parties" in these primitive days were unknown; but this seeming lack of social intercourse was more than made up by the wellknown and numerous tea parties. To "take tea out" was a Dutch institution, and one of great importance. The matrons arrayed in their best petticoats and linsey jackets, "home spun " by their own wheels, would proceed on the intended afternoon visit. They wore capacious pockets, with scissors, pin-cushion, and keys hanging from their girdle, outside their dress; and, reaching the neighbor's house, the visitors industriously used knitting-needles and tongues at the same time. Now, the village gossip was talked over, neighbors' affairs settled, and the stockings finished by tea-time, when the important meal appeared on the table precisely at six o'clock. This was always the occasion for the display of the family plate, with the Lilliputian cups, of rare old family china, out of which the guests sipped the fragrant herb. A large lump of loaf-sugar invariably accompanied each cup, on a little plate, and the delightful beverage was sweetened by an occasional nibble, amid the more solid articles of waffles and Dutch dough-nuts. The pleasant visit finished, the visitors, donning cloaks and hoods-as bonnets were unknown-proceeded homeward in time for milking and other necessary household duties. The kitchen fire-places were of immense size, large enough to roast a sheep or whole hog; and the hooks and trammels sustained large iron pots and kettles. In the spacious chimney-corners the children and negroes gathered-telling stories and cracking nuts by the light of the blazing pine knots, while the industrious vrows turned the merry spinning-wheel, and their lords, the worthy burghers-mayhap just returned from an Indian scrimmage-quietly smoked their long pipes, as they sat watching the wreaths curling above their heads. At length, the clock, with its brazen tongue, having proclaimed the hour of nine, family prayers were said, and all retired, to rise with the dawn.

A model housekeeper rose at cock-crowing, breakfasted with the dawn, and proceeded to the duties of the day; and when the sun reached the meridian or noon mark," dinner, which was strictly a family meal, was on the table. This domestic time-piece answered every purpose, so

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regular were the hours and lives of the people. At one time there were not more than half a dozen clocks in New Amsterdam, with about the same number of watches. But they were strikingly peculiar in one respect they were scarcely ever known to go, and hence were of very little practical utility. No watch-maker had yet found it profitable to visit the settlement; and this was a period two centuries before the invention of Yankee clocks. For a long while, time was marked by hour-glasses and sun-dials.

We have already seen the interior of the kitchen, and will now go up stairs into the parlor of the early Dutch dwellings. Stoves were never dreamed of, but in their place was the cheerful fire-place, sometimes in the corner, but more generally reaching nearly across the back of the room, with its huge gum back-log and glowing fire of hickory. The shovel and tonges occupied each corner of the fire-place, keeping guard, as it were, over the family brass-mounted andirons which supported the blazing wood. Marble mantles had not yet been invented, but, chimney-jambs, inlaid with party colors, imported Holland tiles, representing all kinds of Scriptural stories, were quite ornamental as well as instructive. Many a youngster has received categorical instruction from these silent, venerable teachers.

In one corner of the room always stood the huge oaken iron-bound chest, brimful of household linen, spun by the ladies of the family, who delighted to display these domestic riches to their visitors. Later, this plain wardrobe gave place to the "chest of drawers," one drawer placed upon the other, until the pile reached the ceiling, with its shining brass rings and key-holes. The book-case, too, with its complicated writingdesk, mysterious secret drawers and pigeon-holes came into use about the same period, though both were unknown to the early Knickerbockers. Side-boards were not introduced into New Amsterdam until after the American Revolution, and were entirely of English origin. The round tea-table also occupied a place in a corner of the parlor, while the large square dining-table stood in the kitchen for daily use. In another corner stood the well-known Holland cupboard, with glass doors, conspicuously displaying the family plate and porcelain. Little looking-glasses in narrow black frames, were in common use; two or three only of the wealthiest burghers possessing larger mirrors, elaborately ornamented with gilding and flowers. About 1730, the sconce came in fashion—a hanging or projecting candlestick, with a mirror to reflect the rays. This was a very showy article, giving a fine light to the rooms.* After this period,

* Two of these quaint fixtures, a hundred and fifty years old, hung, until a year or two since, in the parlor of the Union Hall, at Saratoga Springs, N. Y. Old visitors will readily recall them. They now adorn the parlors of Mrs. Washington Putnam, of Saratoga Springs, the widow of the late Washington Putnam, for many years the genial host and owner of the "Union."

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