in the hypercritical manner of a Mittelberger. Pictured in lurid coloring appear the dangers of the passage, the mortality on shipboard, the slavery awaiting colonists on the other side, hopelessly duped by dishonest ship captains and newlanders. Any number of irksome tribulations are emphasized, such as breaking your plow far out in the Carolina wilderness, when there is no smith within a hundred miles to repair it, or the impossibility of obtaining seed in sowing time or a spade when you want to dig, and the "plentiful" game running over the crops and ruining them, when the outraged farmer cannot buy a gun to shoot down the intruding beasts. If the harvest be rich a sickle is surely lacking, and the farmer has to pull the grain out with his hands. Such aggravating little troubles, so skillfully designed to terrify the Swiss peasant, are represented as depriving the settler of every comfort in life. Lastly the argument is made, " If Carolina be fair, Switzerland is fairer, who might gainsay that?" In conclusion follows an appeal to the patriotism of the Swiss, who is called on to decide-though he has never been in America- which of the two countries is the more beautiful. His national pride being thus appealed to, the answer cannot be in doubt for a moment.' This reply, so shrewdly conceived and bearing governmental sanction, undoubtedly had for a time a strong counteracting influence upon literary propagandism. However, immigration went on, regardless of literature pro and con, as if impelled by elemental forces, uncontrolled by sentiment, but governed by natural laws.

1 The two above-named pamphlets are described in detail, with extracts, by Ludwig Hirzel, in a series of articles, entitled "Nach Amerika aus dem Anfang des achtzehnten Jahrhunderts." Sonntagsblatt des Bunds, Bern, November 8, 15, 22, 29, and December 6, 13, 20, 1896.

A system was established very early in American colonial history, by which an immigrant could get to the promised land, though not in possession of the means to pay for his passage. He would agree to serve from three to seven years in the colonies until the price of his transportation was paid off to the shipmaster who had advanced it. At the end of his term he was released, given a suit of clothes, sometimes money or land, and awarded all the rights of a free citizen. Hence the term redemptioners (because redeemed) was applied to this class of immigrants, who were also known as "indented servants." At first the system seemed humane and liberal, yielding the poor ultimately the same opportunities as the well-to-do. It had been advocated by Furley, the agent of William Penn, and had been in vogue in Virginia since the first decade of that colony's existence.' The system began to be applied extensively to German immigration about 1728. Mühlenberg describes the arrival of a ship in Philadelphia in the following manner :2—

"Before the ship is allowed to cast anchor in the harbor, the immigrants are all examined, as to whether any contagious disease be among them. The next step is to bring all the new arrivals in a procession before the city hall and there compel them to take the oath of allegiance to the king of Great Britain. After that they are brought back to the ship. Those that have paid their passage are released, the others are advertised in the newspapers for sale. The ship becomes the market. The buyers make their choice and bargain with the immigrants for a certain number of years and days, depending upon the price demanded

1 The redemptionist system was also in existence among the French of the West Indies, and among the French and Spanish in Louisiana; “Les engagés was the name for indented servants. Cf. Hanno Deiler, Zur Geschichte der Deutschen am unteren Mississippi. Das Redemptionsystem im Staate Louisiana. New Orleans, 1902.

2 Hallesche Nachrichten, vol. ii, 998, note. Reprint, vol. ii, pp. 460–461.

by the ship captain or other 'merchant' who made the outlay for transportation, etc. Colonial governments recognize the written contract, which is then made binding for the redemptioner. The young unmarried people of both sexes are very quickly sold, and their fortunes are either good or bad, according to the character of the buyer. Old married people, widows, and the feeble, are a drug on the market, but if they have sound children, then their transportation charges are added to those of the children, and the latter must serve the longer. This does not save families from being separated in the various towns or even provinces. Again, the healthiest are taken first, and the sick are frequently detained beyond the period of recovery, when a release would frequently have saved them!"

Not only tillers of the soil and artisans became serfs for their passage money, students and schoolmasters also were often sold in this labor market. The Reverend Mr. Kunze naïvely writes, that he had entertained the thought, if ever he became the owner of twenty pounds, of buying the first German student who would land at Philadelphia, put him into his garret, and there with his help begin a Latin school,' which he was sure would quickly pay off the outlay. People of rank, who had lost their money, fared no better than the low-born peasant. There was Frederick Helfenstein, probably a lineal descendant of Count Helfenstein and the Emperor Maximilian, who was compelled to sell himself as a redemptioner in Georgia. Mittelberger tells us of a noble lady, who, with her two

2

1 Hallesche Nachrichten, p. 1377. Reprint, vol. ii, pp. 709-710. The following advertisement appeared in Pennsylvanischer Staatshote, January 18, 1774: "Deutsche Leute. Es sind noch 50-60 deutsche Leute welche neulich von Deutschland hier angekommen sind, vorhanden, so bei der Wittwe Kreiderin im goldenen Schwan logiren. Darunter sind zwei Schulmeister, Handwerksleute, Bauren, auch artige Kinder, sowohl Knaben als Mädchen. Sie möchten für ihre Fracht dienen."

2 Strobel, History of the Salzburgers, p. 117.

half-grown daughters and a young son, in 1753, was compelled to serve, having lost her thousand rix-talers given for safe-keeping to a newlander, who proved to be an embezzler. John Wesley speaks of John Reinier of Switzerland, who "while provided with money, books and drugs" was robbed by the captain and forced to sell himself for seven years. Advertisements were found in the newspapers that did not tactfully distinguish between redemptioner and slave. For example: ·

"To be sold - A likely Servant Woman having three years and a half to serve. She is a good spinner." ("Pennsylvania Gazette," June, 1742.) "To be sold - A Dutch apprentice lad, who has five years and three months to serve; he has been brought up to the tailor's business. Can work well." ("Pennsylvanischer Staatsbote," 14 December, 1773.) 1

1

The profits in the transportation of redemptioners were greater than in that of passengers who paid their way. The latter were therefore made the victims of extortions, from the very beginning of their journey, namely, the passage down the Rhine. The number of toll stations' was legion, and on passing from one principality to another all the baggage had to be reëxamined, a duty never done with a view to expedition, but regulated by the convenience of the customs officials. Fees were demanded with such frequency by agents of all kinds, that the unhappy

1 Cf. Eickhoff, In der neuen Heimat, p. 145.

2 As late as 1804, Dr. Fried. Hermann (of Lübeck), who investigated the transportation facilities of German immigrants, reported on the trip from Heilbronn (on the Neckar) to Rotterdam as follows: "Diese Reise dauert blos von Heilbronn aus 4 bis 6 Wochen, weil die Rheinschiffe bis an die holländische Gränze nicht weniger als 36 Zollstätten zu passieren haben, und bei jeder derselben visitiert werden, ein Geschäft wobei die Zollbeamten mehr auf ihre Bequemlichkeit als auf die schnelle Abfertigung der Schiffe Rücksicht nehmen." Hermann, Die Deutschen in Nordamerika, 1806, p. 14. Earlier conditions were much worse. Cf. Mittelberger, supra, p. 18.

immigrant had little left by the time he got to the Netherlands. His possessions, though carefully enshrined in heavy oaken boxes fastened with good iron bolts, were not secure against the cupidity of newlander or sea-captain. If boxes, trunks, and bales were numerous, they were as likely as not to be left behind, or loaded into another vessel. The latter mode of disposing of the baggage of immigrants became one of the greatest abuses of transatlantic transportation. Well-to-do immigrants, who had put into their trunks linen or clothing necessary for their journey, or perhaps even their food and cooking utensils, were deprived of these necessities and comforts during the whole voyage. Often having placed all their earthly possessions, including money, in their chests, they never saw them again, and were compelled on arrival to sell themselves as redemptioners in preference to becoming paupers. Another tyrannical measure was that of holding the entire body of immigrants on a ship responsible for the total transportation charges. The well-to-do would have to pay for those who could not, or be themselves sold as redemptioners. This arrangement protected the captain against loss, in case a large number of redemptioners died on the way, and also gave him an excuse for extortions. The Germans of Philadelphia attempted to legislate against these abuses, beginning in 1750, but for a long time were unsuccessful, because of the presence in high places of influential grafters heavily interested in the profits of immigrant transportation.

While the immigration increased, strangely enough the expense of a sea-passage rose from six or ten, to fourteen or seventeen louis d'or' (according to Mühlenberg), thus

1 The present money equivalent of the louis d'or is about $4.50. Its purchasing power at that time was far greater than this sum.