to the colonies before the war. The young states were now gaining a new kind of independence by producing their own materials.

Throughout the war, patriotic women in the colonies were at work in many ways. They were active in making ammunition, in spying, and in aiding the fighting men. Some women farmed while their husbands and sons were on the battlefields. One British officer complained to his general that, if their army destroyed all the men in America, they still would have to conquer the women before the war would be won.

The people showed an interest in many new things at this time. They were interested in current events and politics, and they especially wanted to know about their local government. Their demand for daily news about the progress of the war led to an increase in the number of newspapers. In these many ways the young United States was becoming fully independent of the mother country.

When General Cornwallis surrendered to George Washington on October 19, 1781, Washington sent a messenger to Philadelphia with the news. It has been said that he arrived at midnight, just as the night watchman was proclaiming the hour. The watchman called out, "All's well!" and then added, "Cornwallis is taken!"

"Cornwallis is taken" was very good news, but all was not well. Although a new nation had been born, troubles were ahead.

In this chapter you will read about how the United States became a republic, a form of democracy.

DISCUSS:

How does war affect all people?

MEETING NEW WORDS:

adopted: Accepted

affect: Act upon or influence; change in some way appointed: Assigned, or named, to an office approval: Acceptance; ratification authority: Power or right to act or command checks and balances: A system whereby each branch of government has some control over the other branches

coin: Make into money by stamping metal; metal money

commerce: Trade between persons or groups of

persons, or states, or nations convention: A meeting for some purpose

debates: Arguments about issues; discussions of any questions

defense: Protection from others; providing protection for all the people, as expressed in the Constitution

document: An official paper; also, a paper relied upon to prove some fact

enforce: To compel obedience (to a law) executive: Having to do with enforcing the laws;

also, the person or branch that enforces the laws express: Make clear by acts or words finance: The system by which money is raised and spent

function: To operate or work; the operation or

work called for; the purpose or use of something influence: Power to change; ability to bring about a result; pressure

judicial: Having to do with courts and judges and explaining the laws; also, the branch of government which explains the laws

legislative: Having to to with lawmaking; also, branch of government which makes the laws levy: To place a tax on something

objectives: Purposes; results to be realized; goals posterity: People who will live in the future; future generations

power: Authority to control; influence; strength or force

purpose: The object or result aimed at ; the reason for doing something

ratified: Accepted and made official; approved regulate: Make rules for something; govern according to rule

republic: A nation having a representative form of government

revolution: An overthrow of the government by the governed

supreme: Highest in rank; highest in authority and importance

trade: Buying and selling goods; commerce

8. A committee was

study the matter.

to act.

to

AS YOU READ

1. Find out why our country needed a plan of government.

2. Find out what checks and balances are in our Constitution.

PLANNING A NEW GOVERNMENT FOR A NEW NATION

The Articles of Confederation

During the Revolution, the members of the Second Continental Congress continued to hold meetings and to serve in the central government of the colonies. The Congress wanted to establish

From the Portrait by Gilbert Stuart

George Washington.

a simple framework of government for the colonies, which were soon to become states with the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. It appointed a committee in June 1776 to write a plan of confederation for the states. The committee called its plan "The Articles of Confederation." This plan was adopted by the Congress in 1777 and was sent to the states to be ratified by them. When the state of Maryland finally gave its approval in 1781, the Articles of Confederation went into effect.

The Articles of Confederation provided that the states were entering into a "firm league of friendship" and a "perpetual union for the common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare." A Congress, made up of representatives from the 13 states, was to be the central government for the new United States. under the Articles of Confederation.

This was the first step toward a republic.

What Freedom Brought

The new freedom of the states from Great Britain brought many changes and new responsibilities which had to be met by the Congress of the new Confederation.

No longer were there 13 colonies; there were 13 states.

No longer was there a single purpose-the fight for independence that united the states; new purposes were needed to keep them united.

No longer would the 13 colonies be protected by Great Britain; the states would have to protect themselves.

No longer would Great Britain control the trade of the colonies; the states would have to control their own trade.

No longer would money from Great Britain be used; the states would have to coin their own money.

The 13 struggling states, like young children without their mother, began to quarrel. Each state started to run its local government for its own good, rather than for the good of the whole nation.

The Articles of Confederation did not give enough power to the central government.

There was no executive officer to enforce the laws.

The Congress could levy taxes by asking the states for money, but it had no power to make the states pay the money.

The Congress could not control trade between the states.

The Congress had no good way to settle quarrels among the states.

A Critical Time in American History Because of the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, the states began to drift apart and to distrust one another. As a result, some of the leading men of the states argued that there must be a stronger central government with enough authority to force the states to obey its laws. It was difficult to get started on such a plan of action. The Congress, the only central group representing the 13 states, finally suggested that the states arrange for a convention to change and strengthen the Articles of Confederation.

George Washington, who served as President of the convention through its long meetings. His wisdom and influence guided the delegates and held them together.

Benjamin Franklin, the elderly delegate from Pennsylvania, whose personality and good advice helped to keep the convention running smoothly.

James Madison, a Virginian who knew a great deal about governments and constitutional law. He is said to have written most of the Constitution with the able help of Gouverneur Morris, James Wilson, and Alexander Hamilton.

Alexander Hamilton, of New York, who was a student of finance and government. Although Hamilton opposed some of the ideas and provisions of the Constitution, he worked almost without sleep to have it adopted.

James Wilson, who was sent by Pennsylvania to the convention, was an authority in political and legal matters.

Gouverneur Morris, from Pennsylvania, who became responsible for the final wording of the Constitution because of his keen mind and ability to write.

These men and the other 49 delegates decided that everything which had been said and written at the convention should be kept secret until the Constitution was completed. Each delegate tried to represent the wishes of the people who had sent him to the convention and, at the same time, work for the good of all the people. All through the hot summer there were stormy debates, but these wise men learned to compromise. Each delegate, at times, gave up something he wanted in order to reach an agreement that would help the whole country.

The Objectives of the Constitution

The Preamble to the Constitution, in 52 words, stated the purposes and objectives of the new union of the states under the Constitution. The passing years have created many new needs which, in turn, have required changes to be made in the law. The writers of the Constitution provided a way in which these changes could be made. Such changes are called amendments. However, the purposes of our Constitution and the government it established have not changed.

Constitution of the United States of America

Preamble

We the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

In these first words, the Preamble to the Constitution clearly states that the supreme power of government is in the hands of "We the People." Nearly every word in this opening paragraph of the Constitution expresses an important idea. It is well worth studying.

Some Old Ideas of Government Honored

In order to carry out the purposes and reach the objectives set forth in the Preamble, the delegates to the convention studied the plans of government used in England, in the former colonies, and in the states. The best ideas from each of these plans they wrote into the new Constitution.

New Ideas of Government Also Added

The delegates also found it necessary to write into the Constitution certain new ideas of government to assure that the aims and goals set forth in the Preamble would be reached.

The new Constitution provided for three branches of government:

The legislative branch, called Congress, which makes the laws,

The executive branch, headed by a President, which enforces the laws, and

The judicial branch, which is the system of

courts and judges, that explains the laws. The Constitution provided that the legislative branch would have two Houses, the House of Representatives and the Senate. Members of the House of Representatives were to be elected according to population. As a result, a state with more people would have more members in this House than would a state with fewer people,