POST ROADS-POSTAL MONEY ORDERS classes of activities. The postmasters and POST ROADS. The authority of the Federal other officials of the postal service in the field Government to maintain and operate a postal are thus, in effect, under the orders and direc- service is contained in the Constitution (Art. tion of four or more superior officials. This I, Sec. viii, ¶ 7) which provides that Congress form of organization has been criticized as shall have power "to establish post-offices and resulting "practically in the creation within postroads." This wording has given rise to the Department of five separate administra- much discussion regarding the intent of Contions, working on their own lines with little gress. Did it intend to confer upon Congress or no mutual coöperation, and incidentally in the authority merely to determine where post a duplication of records which is entirely un- offices should be located, and what should be necessary and could scarcely have existed if the deemed to be post roads, or to establish and whole of the Department had been looked upon operate a postal system? As Pomeroy, in his as a unit and administered as such" ("Pre-Constitutional Law, points out, "No other liminary Report of Joint Commission on Busi- constitutional grant seems to be clothed in ness Method of Post Office Department and Postal Service," February 10, 1908, Sen. Reports, 60 Cong., 1, 201, Sess. 15). The final report of this Commission (Sen. Rep., 60 Cong., 2, Sess. 701) submitted December 17, 1908, furthermore points out as one of the chief structural weaknesses of the system the lack of permanency of the tenure of the chief administrative officers. On this point the report says: In this connection it is necessary only to point out that in the last seven years there have been four Postmasters General, three First Assistant Postmasters General, three Second Assistant Postmasters General, two Third Assistant Postmasters General and two Fourth Assistant Postmasters General, and that of all these officers but four ever had, prior to their appointment, any experience in postal affairs. To remedy this condition of affairs, the Commission recommends a thorough reorganization of both the Post Office Department and the postal service. The most essential features of this scheme of reorganization which is embodied in the so-called Carter Bill, consist in the creation of the office of Director of Posts who, under the supervision of the Postmaster General, will have general superintendence and management of the postal service, of six assistant directors of posts to have charge of the "six main natural divisions of the service, namely, post offices, transportation, mail matter, appointments, finances, and supplies," in lieu of the four Assistant Postmasters General, and the division of the country upon administrative and not geographical considerations, into not less than 15 nor more than 20 postal districts each in. charge of a district superintendent. Changes in many other respects are proposed of which limitations of space prevent consideration in this place. See CABINET GOVERNMENT; EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS; POSTAL SYSTEM; POSTMASTER GENERAL. References: D. T. Leech and W. L. Nicholson, History of the Post Office Department (1879); F. Huebner, "Our Postal System" in Columbia Hist. Soc., Proceedings, IX (1906), 126-174; M. Cushing, The Story of Our Post Office (1883); C. H. Van Tyne and W. G. Leland, Guide to the Archives of the Govt. of the U. S. (2d ed., 1907), 147–171. W. F. WILLOUGHBY. words which so poorly express its object, or so feebly indicate the particular measures which may be adapted to carry out its design. To establish post offices and post roads is the form of the grant; to create and regulate the entire postal system of the country is the evident intent." President Monroe in his communication to Congress in vetoing the Cumberland Road Bill (see), May 4, 1822, adopted the narrow construction of this grant. The Supreme Court of the United States, however, has uniformly adopted the other view, with the result that no doubt now exists regarding the power of Congress to provide for the operation of a postal service. Aside from the express grant of power that has been quoted it would seem that the power conferred upon Congress to regulate interstate commerce carries with it the authority to provide for a proper postal service. See CUMBERLAND ROAD; INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS; POSTAL SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES. References: W. W. Willoughby, Const. Law of the U. S. (1911); J. Story, Commentaries (1857), § 1123. W. F. W. The use of POSTAL MONEY ORDERS. money orders in the United States for the transmission of money dates from 1864. This system was established primarily to accommodate the thousands of soldiers in the field desiring to send money to their families. It has met such a real need and has proved of such value that it has been retained and constantly extended. On June 30, 1910, such orders could be obtained at 51,791 post offices, and during the year preceding, orders were issued to the amount of $76,918,036. The growth of the system is shown by the fact that the corresponding total in 1900 was but $32,060,983. Provision also exists for the issue of international money orders; during the year ending June 30, 1910, orders of this character to the amount of $99,742,686 were issued. Money orders are issued upon the payment to the postmaster of the sum called for by them and a fee varying in amount according to the sums represented. These orders are payable only to the persons in whose favor they are issued, or their order, and payment must be made at the post offices designated in the orders. POSTAL SAVINGS BANKS-POSTAL SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES From 1864 to July 1, 1894, postal notes were issued in fixed denominations that did not have these limitations. Their issue was ordered discontinued by Act of January 27, 1894, on the ground, as stated in the report of the Postmaster General for 1895, that, being payable to bearer, they lacked the element of security afforded by money orders and their is sue lessened the income derived from the fees for the latter. The revival of the use of these notes was strongly recommended by Postmaster General Hitchcox. He urged that Congress authorize the issue of notes of this character for fixed amounts not exceeding $10 to be payable to bearer on presentation at any post office. "This," he says, "would provide a simple and inexpensive means of transmitting small sums and would therefore render less frequent the sending of bills, coins and postage stamps through the mails, a practice that results in many losses and entails much expense on the department." or: See BANKING, PUBLIC REGULATION BANKS, SAVINGS; DEPOSIT OF PUBLIC FUNDS. References: E. W. Kemmerer, "The U. S. Postal Savings Banks" in Pol. Sci. Quart, XXVI (1911), 462-499; Library of Congress. List of Books Relating to Postal Savings Banks (1908); Am. Year Book, 1910, 328, ibid. 1911, 308, ibid, 1912, 348, and year by year. DAVIS R. DEWEY. POSTAL SERVICE, FRAUD ORDERS OF. See FRAUD ORDERS OF THE POSTAL SERVICE. POSTAL SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES. Pre-Constitutional Precedents.The postal system of the country antedates the organization of the government. Massachusetts in 1639 and Virginia in 1657 enacted legislation looking to the provision of postal facilities. In 1710 the postal system of Great Britain was reorganized and New York was made one of the principal offices. In 1737 Benjamin See EXCHANGE OF FUNDS; POSTAL SYSTEM Franklin was made postmaster at Philadel OF THE UNITED STATES. References: U. S. Postmaster General, Annual Reports; Official Postal Guide (annual). W. F. WILLOUGHBY. POSTAL SAVINGS BANKS. By act of June 25, 1910, authority was given for the establishment of postal savings banks. The arguments advanced in favor were: (1) the encouragement of thrift; (2) to provide a place of deposit free from any suspicion of insecurity; (3) to provide a market for government bonds. It was urged that there were considerable sections of the country not provided with savings institutions; that foreigners, particularly from southern Europe, were suspicious of banking institutions already in operation, and that in some states this was justified on account of lax supervision; and that postal banks would provide an outlet for the investment of United States bonds in case they should be discarded from use as a basis of national bank circulation. On the other hand it was urged that local funds should not be diverted to the national treasury away from the region where the money was saved, to the detriment of local investment. On this point a compromise was reached, a part of the deposits being redeposited in local banks and a part under certain contingencies going to the Federal Government. Deposits may be made for not more than $100 in any one month, and to total amount of not more than $500, exclusive of accumulated interest. Two per cent interest is allowed. Deposits may be exchanged as low as $20 for bonds. The system as introduced in January 3, 1911, was installed in one post office in each state and territory; but experience justified a rapid extension. The results have been most satisfactory. After three years' operation the deposits amount to more than $28,000,000. phia. On account of the ability with which he conducted this office he was made deputypostmaster for America, a position which roughly corresponds to that of Postmaster General today. July 26, 1775, the Continental Congress resolved "that a Postmaster General be appointed for the United Colonies who shall hold office at Philadelphia." The Constitution, adopted in 1789, provided (Art. I, Sec. viii, ¶ 7) that Congress shall have control of the postal system of the country. At that time the system embraced about 70 post offices with an aggregate annual revenue of about $30,000. Functions. Consisting originally merely of a service for the transportation of letters and other like matter, the system has constantly grown in complexity, through the assumption of new duties, as imposed upon it by law, and the provision of additional facilities. As at present organized and conducted, the postal system performs at least four distinct functions: (1) the collection, transportation and distribution of mail matter; (2) the opera tion of a system of money orders for the transfer of money; (3) the operation of a postal saving system, imposed upon it by the Act of June 25, 1910; and (4) the operation of a parcel post system in accordance with an act of Aug. 24, 1912, which went into operation Jan. 1, 1913. Organization. The service as a whole, considered from an administrative standpoint, consists of two distinct parts: the Post Office Department proper at Washington, at the head of which is the Postmaster General, a member of the President's Cabinet; and the field service, or Postal Service as it is usually denominated. The organization and activities of the Post Office Department, and the powers and duties of the Postmaster General (see) are considered elsewhere. POSTAL SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES The operations of the postal service are performed through three classes of agencies: (1) post offices, of which there are four classes; (2) delivery service, which can be further divided into city delivery and rural delivery; (3) transportation, which can be divided into a number of heads corresponding to the means of transportation employed. The division of post offices into classes corresponds to the classification of postmasters into those of the first class, second class, third class and fourth class. Postmasters of the first class include all those receiving a salary of $3,000 or over; those of the second class those receiving a salary of less than $3,000 but not less than $2,000; those of the third class those receiving less than $2,000 but not less than $1,000; and those of the fourth class those whose annual compensation, exclusive of their commissions on the money order business of their offices, amounts to less than $1,000. Postmasters of the first three classes are appointed by the President by and with the advice and consent of the Senate; those of the fourth class by the Postmaster General. The salaries of postmasters of the first three classes are fixed by the Act of March 3, 1883, and depend upon the gross receipts of their offices. Third class postmasters receive, in addition to their salaries, a fee of three cents per money order issued. Fourth class postmasters receive the whole of the box rents collected and a commission on the cancellation of stamps, post cards, etc., mailed at their offices, sale of waste paper, etc., calculated on a graduated scale with a limit of $250 per quarter. On July 1, 1911, there were 59,580 post of fices, of which 7,592 were of the presidential class, and 51,988 of the fourth class. Of the former, 398 were of the first class, 1,707 of the second class, and 5,487 of the third class. On July 1, 1912, the number of post offices had declined to 58,729, in continuation of the reduction which has been in progress since 1901, when the number reached its highest point, 76,945. Transportation. The transportation service includes two branches which have to do, respectively, with domestic and foreign transportation. The domestic branch in turn includes two divisions: the railway mail service and contract service. The railway mail service combines the two functions of a post office for the assorting of mail for distribution, and its transportation. In order that the first function may be performed the use of specially designed cars is necessary. These cars, which are in effect traveling post offices, are furnished by the railroads, but they are manned by employees of the postal service. The idea of a service of this character was first brought to the attention of the Post Office Department in 1847 by First Assistant Postmaster Hobbie, who was impressed with the advantages of such a system as in operation in England. It was not until 1862, however, that the first railway post office was established in this country. The system was rapidly extended until today it constitutes one of the most important and interesting features of the postal service. The expenditures for this service during the year ending June 30, 1911, was $20,152,904.18 and the number of officials and clerks employed on June 30 of that year, 17,028. All mail matter not transported in these cars is handled in bulk by the railroads and other transportation agencies in accordance with the terms of contracts entered into between them and the government. The Department distinguishes among the following seven classes of contract transportation services: (1) contract railway service; (2) screen wagon service; (3) mail messenger service; (4) electric car service; (5) steamboat service; (6) pneumatic tube service; (7) Alaskan star service. The Department is now experimenting with an eighth service, that of aviation. At the present time one of the most important problems before the Department and Congress has to do with the payments that should be made to railroads and other transportation agencies for the provision and hauling of mail cars and the transportation of mail matter in bulk. This subject was considered by a special commission the appointment of which was authorized by Act of March 4, 1911. Cost of Postal Service.-The total amount paid to the railroads in 1911 was $50,583,123, as compared with $49,405,311 in 1910; to other means of transportation $13,175,366, as compared with $12,534,500; and for the transportation of the foreign mail, $3,315,349, as compared with $3,204,130. The total revenue, expenditures and deficit or profit of the post office since 1900, as reported by the Post Office Department, are shown in the following table: The free delivery service of the postal serv. ice is considered in a separate contribution (see RURAL Delivery). See FRAUD ORDERS; PARCEL POST; RURAL FREE DELIVERY; and under MAIL; POST; POSTAL. References: U. S. Official Postal Guide (annual); Joint Commission on Business Methods of Post Office Department and Postal Service, "Preliminary Report" in Sen. Rep., 60 Cong., 1 Sess.,201, "Final Report" in Sen. Rep., 60 Cong., 2 Sess., 701; Postmaster General, Annual Reports; C. C. Huebner, American State Papers; D. D. Leech and W. L. Nicholson, Our Postal System (1906); J. A. Fairlie, National Administration (1905), ch. xii; Am. Year Book, 1910, 532; ibid, 1911, 546-47; ibid, 1912, 534-36, and year by year. W. F. WILLOUGHBY. the Senate is required. The act of 1872 it will be noted was passed at a time when the tenure of office acts were in full force. These acts were incorporated into the Revised Statutes in 1880 as section 1767 to 1772 inclusive. As the repealing act of 1887 specifically repealed these sections only, the law regarding the appointment and tenure of the Postmaster General remained unchanged. The most significant fact regarding the powers and duties of the Postmaster General is the wide discretion that is vested in him in respect to the practical administration of his department and of the postal service. With the exception of the assistant postmasters general and the purchasing agent, who are appointed by the President, he appoints all of ficers and employees of the Post Office Department. He likewise appoints the fifty thousand odd fourth class postmasters.) He has almost POSTAL UNION, UNIVERSAL. In order a free hand in respect to the organization of that the facilities of the postal service may ex- his department and the distribution of duties tend to communications between different among the four assistant postmasters general. countries, provision must be made for a ma-He contracts with the railroad and steamship chinery through which matters of common in-lines for the transportation of mails. Subject terest to the several countries may be adjusted. to the approval of the President, he makes This is accomplished through the Universal Postal Union, an international institution with headquarters at Berne, Switzerland. The operations of this institution are regulated by a treaty concluded at Berne, October 9, 1874. Almost all civilized nations of the world are now parties to this treaty and as such members of the union. A bureau of international postal statistics is operated at Berne in connection with the union. See INTERNATIONAL UNIONS; POSTAL SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES. W. F. W. POSTMASTER GENERAL. The Postmaster General is the head of the Post Office Department, and as such the directing head of the federal postal service. Since 1829 he has been a member of the President's Cabinet. His compensation is $12,000 per annum. Like other Cabinet officers he is appointed by the President by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. His position is unique, however, in that, in accordance with the provisions of the act of June 8, 1872, giving to the Post Office Department its present organization, his tenure of office is "during the term of the postal treaties with foreign governments. He establishes new post offices and discontinues ones in existence as the needs of the public and the service seem to demand. Within the limitations of appropriations, he extends the rural free delivery system and in other respects has discretion in respect to the extension of the service. To an unusual degree, therefore, the Postmaster General, among the heads of departments, exercises direct control over, and is responsible for the manner in which the affairs of his department are conducted. See CABINET; EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS; POSTMASTERS GENERAL. From 1789 till 1829 the following Postmasters General served without the rank of Cabinet officers: 1789 (Sept. 26), S. Osgood. 1814 (Mar. 17), R. J. Meigs, Jr. POSTS, MILITARY-POVERTY AND POOR RELIEF In 1829 provision was made for a Post | garrisoned are designated as forts, whether Office Department, and the Postmaster Gen- fortified or not, and others are called camps eral became a member of the Cabinet. Since while occupied by troops. As commandant that time the following Postmasters General of a post the senior officer on duty has special have served as members of the Cabinet: duties and prerogatives relating to its defense and administration, and a staff of six or more officers may be detailed as his assistants. Ex 1829 (Mar. 9)-1833 (Apr. 30), William T. Barry. 1833 (May 1)-1840 (May 19), Amos Kendall (re-penditures are limited to the appropriations Commissioned, Mar. 15, 1836). 1840 (May 19)-1841 (Mar. 3), John M. Niles. 1841 (Mar. 4), Selah R. Hobbie (1st Asst. P. M. Gen.; ad int.). 1841 (Mar. 6)-1841 (Sept. 13), Francis Granger. 1841 (Sept. 14), Selah R. Hobbie 1st Asstnger Gen.; ad int.). 1841 (Sept. 13)-1845 (Mar. 6), Chas. A. Wickliffe. 1845 (Mar. 6)-1849 (Mar. 5), Cave Johnson, 1849 (Mar. 6), Selah R. Hobbie (1st Asst. P. M. Gen.; ad int.). 1849 (Mar. 8)-1850 (July 22), Jacob Collamer. 1850 (July 23)-1852 (Aug. 31), Nathan K. Hall. 1852 (Aug. 31)-1853 (Mar. 7), Samuel D. Hubbard. 1853 (Mar. 7)-1857 (Mar. 6), James Campbell. 1857 (Mar. 6)-1859 (Mar. 8), Aaron V. Brown. 1859 (Mar. 9), Horatio King (1st Asst. P. M. Gen.; ad int.). 1859 (Mar. 14)-1860 (Dec. 31), Joseph Holt. made by Congress, except in case of emergency, when the commandant may spend $500 for the preservation of public property. No land can be purchased or buildings erected without express authority from Congress. Posts were multiplied along the shifting frontiers of the West when troops were required to protect settlers from the Indians; and, though many of these have been abandoned as obsolete, others are maintained to satisfy local interests. The War Department in 1912 enumerated a number of posts which might be 1861 (Jan. 1), Horatio King (1st Asst. P. M. abandoned with advantage to the service, Gen.; ad int.). 1861 (Feb. 12)-1861 (Mar. 5), Horatio King. 1861 (Mar. 5)-1864 (Sept. 23), Montgomery Blair. 1864 (Sept. 24)-1866 (July 16), William Dennison (recommissioned, Dec. 8, 1864). 1866 (July 17), Alexander W. Randall (1st Asst. P. M. Gen.; ad int.). 1866 (July 25)-1869 (Mar. 4), Alexander W. Ran dall. 1869 (Mar. 4), St. John B. L. Skinner (1st Asst. P. M. Gen. ; ad int.). 1869 (Mar. 5)-1874 (July 3), John A. J. Cresswell (recommissioned Mar. 17, 1873). 1874 (July 3)-1874 (Aug. 24), James W. Marshall. 1874 (Aug. 24)-1876 (July 12), Marshall Jewell (recommissioned, Dec. 15, 1874). 1876 (July 12)-1877 (Mar. 12), James M. Tyner. 1877 (Mar. 12)-1880 (June 2), David M. Key. 1880 (June 2)-1881 (Mar. 5), Horace Maynard. 1881 (Mar. 5)-1881 (Dec. 20), Thomas L. James (recommissioned Oct. 27, 1881). 1881 (Dec. 20)-1883 (Mar. 25), Timothy O. Howe. 1883 (Mar. 26), Frank Hatton (1st Asst. P. M. Gen.; ad int.). 1883 (Apr. 3)-1884 (Sept. 24), Walter Q. Gresham (recommissioned, Dec. 11, 1883). 1884 (Sept. 25), Frank Hatton (1st Asst. P. M. Gen.; ad int.). 1884 (Oct. 14)-1885 (Mar. 6), Frank Hatton (re commissioned, Dec. 4, 1884). 1885 (Mar. 6)-1888 (Jan. 16), William F. Vilas. 1888 (Jan. 16)-1889 (Mar. 5), Don. M. Dickinson. 1889 (Mar. 5)-1893 (Mar. 6), John Wanamaker. 1893 (Mar. 6)-1895 (Mar. 1), Wilson S. Bissell. 1895 (Mar. 1)-1897 (Mar. 5), William L. Wilson. 1897 (Mar. 5)-1898 (Apr. 21), James A. Gary. 1898 (Apr. 21)-1902 (Jan. 9), Charles Emory Smith (recommissioned Mar. 5, 1901). 1902 (Jan. 9)-1904 (Oct. 10), Henry C. Payne. 1904 (Oct. 10)-1905 (Mar. 6), Robert J. Wynne. 1905 (Mar. 6)-1907 (Mar. 4), George B. Cortelyou. 1907 (Mar. 4)-1909 (Mar. 5), George von L. Meyer. 1909 (Mar. 5-1913 (Mar 4), Frank H. Hitchcock. 1913 (Mar. 5) Albert S. Burleson. A. B. H. POSTS, MILITARY. Reservations occupied by any detachment of the United States Army are called military posts. Those permanently though some of them have been enlarged and improved at considerable expense in the previous ten years; as for example Fort D. A. Russell, Wyoming, cost $4,893,164 for construction work during the ten years ending June 30, 1911. The total for construction at nine posts was over $37,600,000, and during the same period eight new posts were constructed at an expense of $6,539,605. In 1910, 100 posts, including six in Alaska and four in the Hawaiian Islands, cost $4,500,000 for improvements; and land was purchased for enlarging 12 of them at a cost of $313,525. Posts in the Philippines were allotted $2,000,000. Post exchanges to serve as centres of recreation cost $400,000 in 1910, the limit being $40,000 for the larger garrisons. These replace the post-traders' establishments once authorized and the "canteens" of later date. Since 1901 the sale of wine, beer, and other intoxicating liquors at military posts has been prohibited by law. Posts schools are maintained for enlisted men and children. See COAST DEFENSE; EMINENT DOMAIN; JURISDICTION OVER FEDERAL SITES; MILITARY RESERVATIONS; NAVY YARDS. References: U. S. War Department, Military Laws (1908), 622-626, 1181, 1247, 1294, List of Military Posts (1902); Annual Reports, 1899-1903 (1904), 266-268; (1910), I, 56, 130, 152-154, 180, 254-256, 263–282; (1912), I, 156-176, 188; House Exec. Doc., 62 Cong., 2 Sess., No. 490 (1912). C. G. CALKINS. POVERTY AND POOR RELIEF Definition of Poverty.-Poverty is defined by | which constitutes abundance, or even luxury the Century Dictionary as "lack of means of in the tropics may represent starvation, cold support." Poverty is a relative term, which and misery in a northern climate. An income cannot be reduced to absolute terms or dollars which may be utterly insufficient for the ordior cents, or even to material supplies. That nary needs of a family in the city of New amount and kind of clothing, food or shelter | York or San Francisco may enable a family to |