PORK, OR PORK BARREL-PORTO RICO

Grand Rapids, Michigan, February 14, 1897, | Through the initiative of the fusionist wing at which two state organizations were formed, of the party a joint convention was held at the regular or fusionist Populist organization Denver, in 1903, at which a united call was and the "Middle of the Road" organization. issued for the meeting of both committees at An attempt was made to heal the breach at a St. Louis, Missouri, February 22, 1903. At convention of the Populist Reform Press Asso- that meeting it was decided to dissolve the ciation held at Memphis, Tennessee, February, alliance with the Democratic party and nomi1897, at which a committee was appointed to nate an independent party ticket. At the call a conference, if necessary, to heal the national nominating convention held at Springdifferences. Such a conference was held at field, Illinois, July 4, 1904, Thomas E. Watson Nashville, Tennessee, July 3-5, 1897, but was of Georgia was nominated for President and unsuccessful. A national "Middle of the Thomas H. Tibbles of Nebraska for Vice-PresiRoad" organization was formed and a national dent. The Populists polled only 114,753 votes committee appointed with power to call a na- at the November election. Although the national convention. Such a convention met at tional organization was continued, at the presiCincinnati, Ohio, September 5, 1898. The Reg-dential election in 1908 the Populists were ular Populists held a national convention at Omaha, Nebraska, February, 1900, which resulted in the complete separation of the factions.

Mr.

able to poll for their candidates, Thomas E. Watson of Georgia and Samuel W. Williams of Indiana, only 28,131 votes, of which about 17,000 were in Georgia.

Decline. The causes of the rapid decline of this third party movement is found: (1) in the alliance of the Populist party with the Democratic party which resulted in the absorp tion of a large portion of the Populist party by the stronger organization; (2) in the ex

classes during the first decade of the twentieth century; (3) in the fact that a large number of their progressive demands were incorporated into the platforms of the traditional parties.

See DEMOCRATIC PARTY; FARMERS' ALLI ANCE; GREENBACK PARTY; IMPERALISM; PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS; REPUBLICAN PARTY; SILVER COINAGE CONTROVERSY.

Campaign of 1900.-The regular or fusionist wing of the party held its nominating convention at Sioux Falls, South Dakota, May 9, 1900, while on the same day the antifusionist or "Middle of the Road" wing held its convention at Cincinnati, Ohio. Since it was a foregone conclusion that Bryan would be the Dem-traordinary prosperity of the agricultural ocratic presidential candidate, the fusionist Populist convention nominated him by acclamation. Charles A. Towne was the vice-presidential nominee; but he withdrew, after the Democratic convention had met and nominated Adlai E. Stevenson. The Populist executive committee substituted Stevenson in Towne's place. The principles of the previous Populist platform were readopted, emphasis being placed upon the demand for free coinage of silver and the denunciation of the financial measures of the McKinley administration. In addition, sympathy for the Boers was pressed, imperialism (see) was denounced, and the following demands were made: exclusion of Mongolian and Malayan immigration; municipal ownership of public utilities; and home rule for territories and the District of Columbia. The Middle of the Road convention held at Cincinnati, Ohio, nominated Wharton Barker of Pennsylvania for President and Ignatius Donnelly, Minnesota, for Vice-President. The platform was significant only in that it emphasized the original Populist theory of fiat money, and considered the free coinage of both silver and gold at the ratio of sixteen to one PORK, OR PORK BARREL. An expression as merely a temporizing expedient until a of recent origin denoting federal funds availsystem providing for "a scientific and absolute able for appropriations, particularly for the paper money" could be secured. At the No- river and harbor and public building approvember election the Middle of the Road Popu-priations, which are too often looked upon by lists received a popular vote of 50,232. congressmen as funds (or pork) to be divided

ex

References: T. McKee, National Conventions and Platforms (5th ed., 1904); J. H. Hopkins, Pol. Parties in the U. S. (1900); "Presidential Campaign" in Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia (1891-1902); "Political Campaign" in New International Year Book (1908); W. A. Peffer, "Populist Party, The Mission of" in North American Review, CLVII (1893), 665-678; F. E. Haynes, "New Sectionalism" in Quart. Journal of Econ., X (1896), 269–295; F. L. McVey, "Populist Movement" in Am. Econ. Studies, I, No. 3 (1896), 135-209; M. Butler, "People's Party" in Forum, XXVIII (1900), 658-662; T. E. Watson, “People's Party's Appeal" in Independent, LXV (1908), 882-886.

Campaigns of 1904 and 1908.-After the pres-up by logrolling methods. idential campaign of 1900 both wings maintained national committees. However, the increase of the influence of the conservative branch of the Democratic party in the control of that party prepared the way for a reunit ing of the factions of the Populist party.

O. C. HORMELL.

O. C. H.

PORTO RICO. The Island.-Porto Rico, one of the insular possessions of the United States, is the fourth island in size of the West Indies, being the smallest of what are known as the Greater Antilles. It is nearly rectangular in

PORTO RICO

months the affairs of the island were managed by the military authorities under the general direction of the War Department. This government came to an end on May 1, 1900, being replaced by a purely civil government, created by Act of Congress approved April 12, 1900.

form, with an area of about 3600 square miles., possession of the island was assumed by the Its population, according to the census taken military forces. For a little over eighteen by the United States in 1910 is 1,118,012. The original inhabitants were Carib Indians. These, as a separate race, have now entirely disappeared, though the present inhabitants in the interior show large admixture of this original Indian blood. The present population is returned as two-thirds white and one-third negro, though it is certain that a considerable number of those reported white have a very considerable amount of Indian and negro blood in their veins. The white blood is predominantly Spanish, and Spanish is the language of the people, though rapid progress in the use of the English language is taking place as a result of the American occupation.

Government. This act, known as the Foraker Act, after the name of its author, constitutes, with slight amendments, the present (1913) organic act of the island. The act provides that the government of the island shall be vested in an executive, consisting of a governor and six heads of administrative departments, a legislature of two housesthe executive council, and a house of dele

Spanish Rule. The island was visited by | gates-and a system of courts of justice, conColumbus in 1493. In 1510 it was formally taken possession of in the name of Spain by Ponce de Leon, since when, until the American occupation, it remained a Spanish dependency. On the outbreak of the war of the United States with Spain the island was invaded by the American forces. The Treaty of Paris of December 10, 1898, establishing peace between the two countries, provided for the cession of the island to the United States.

Under Spain the administration of affairs was entirely in the hands of the captains general, or governors, who held office from the crown, were looked upon as its direct representatives and were responsible to it rather than to the Spanish nation or people.

The real political life of Porto Rico did not begin until 1808, since previous to that time the island was governed practically as a dependency of Hispañola, or Santo Domingo. In that year, it was conceded a measure of independent administrative functions and was given representation in the national parliament. From that time until the American occupation, the island followed the varying fortunes of the mother country, now obtaining more, now less, political privileges.

Annexation. Though the treaty of peace was not signed until December 10, 1898, formal occupation of the island by the United States began October 18 of that year, when full

sisting of a territorial court having the jurisdiction of United States circuit and district courts, and a supreme court of Porto Rico, with such inferior courts as the local legisla ture may from time to time create. The most characteristic feature of this government is the manner in which the members of the executive council, or upper house, are selected, and the powers given to that body. The law thus provides that the executive council shall be composed of eleven members, six of whom shall be the heads of the administrative departments, all, like the Governor, to be appointed by the President by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, for a term of four years. Not less than five of the eleven members must be native Porto Ricans. The members of the lower house, thirty-five in number, are selected every two years by what is practically manhood suffrage. The result of these provisions is to establish about as even a balance of power in the legislature between the Americans and the natives of the island as can well be secured, though the veto power possessed by the governor throws the final determination as to what legislation shall be enacted into American hands.

In spite of the many disagreements between the two houses in respect to details of legislation, this system has worked effectively. A large body of legislation of high character has

PORTS, FREE-PORTS, JURISDICTION IN

avoided.

been enacted. On only one occasion has a to administer affairs through officers of the deadlock resulted. This occurred in 1909 government of the mother country-was thus when the two houses were unable to agree upon the general appropriation bill for the support of the government. To settle this difficulty Congress passed an amendment to the organic act, by which it was provided that, in all cases of a failure on the part of the legislature to make due provision for the support of the government, the governor should promulgate a budget, the total of which should not exceed the amount appropriated for the previous fiscal year.

In respect to financial matters, Congress was equally liberal. It provided that the internal revenue laws of the United States should not extend to the island but that the latter should have the right to establish an excise system of its own; that all revenues, over and above the cost of collection, derived from custom dues paid on goods imported into the island from foreign countries should be paid into the insular instead of the federal treasury; that the duties to be paid on imports and exports pass

should be but fifteen per cent of the regular duties, and that no duties at all should be paid in respect to such commerce as soon as the island had provided for itself a revenue system adequate for its needs. In pursuance of this latter provision complete free trade be tween Porto Rico and the United States has existed since 1901.

The functions of the executive council, how ever, are by no means limited to those of acting between the island and the United States ing as the upper house of the legislative assembly. As such, it sits merely during the sixty days to which the regular sessions of the assembly are limited each year, or during such extraordinary sessions as may be called by the governor. Throughout the year it also sits in what is called executive session for the transaction of a large amount of important business. These duties were conferred upon it, partly by the organic act, and partly by laws enacted by the insular legislature. Among the most important of these duties are those of acting as a public utilities commission for the granting of all franchises and concessions of a public character, and of prescribing the rates and conditions of service that shall be observed by public service corporations; of administering the election laws; of acting as the approving body in respect to the sale of bonds by municipalities, or the granting of loans to these bodies from the insular treasury; of authorizing certain readjustments in the budget as enacted by the legislature; and of approving nominations to office made by the governor.

As regards representation in Congress, Porto Rico has been treated as a territory, its citizens being directed to elect every two years a commissioner or delegate who has a seat in the House of Representatives, with the right to be heard but not to vote. Great prosperity has been enjoyed by the island under American rule. The value of property has advanced, wages have increased, the trade of the island, both as regards imports and exports, has increased several fold since 1900, millions of dollars have been spent on schools. roads and other improvements, and progress has been made in almost every direction.

See ANNEXATIONS TO THE UNITED STATES; DEPENDENCIES; DELEGATES.

W. F. WILLOUGHBY.

PORTS, FREE. See FREE PORTS.

References: Census of Porto Rico (1899); Relations with National Government.-An- G. W. Davis, Report on the Civil Government other characteristic and important feature of of Porto Rico (1900); Governor of Porto Rico, the government thus created by Congress for Annual Reports; W. F. Willoughby, Terri Porto Rico consists in the nature of the rela-tories and Dependencies of the United States tions that it is provided should exist between (1905); C. A. Beard, Readings in Am. Governthe insular government and the national gov-ment and Politics (1911), 388-390. ernment. In making a decision regarding this phase of the government to be established for the island, Congress wisely adopted the policy of conferring the greatest autonomy practicable upon the insular government. It thus gave to such government full power to take all action necessary for the management of the local | affairs of the island, subject only to the right of Congress to disapprove of legislation if it saw fit. It likewise relieved it from all administrative control from Washington further than is contained in the power of the President to remove persons appointed by him for cause, and in the obligation of the governor and the heads of departments to make annual reports regarding the manner in which they have discharged their duties. The fatal mistake, so often made in providing for the government of dependencies-that of attempting

PORTS, JURISDICTION IN. Enclosed wa ters accessible from the sea and suitable for anchorage for ships are usually termed ports in distinction from the more open roadsteads and marginal sea over which a state may have jurisdiction. A state may exercise within its ports, such jurisdiction as it deems necessary for its own well-being; though generally a state does not extend its jurisdiction over foreign merchant vessels to acts taking place on board and not disturbing the peace of the port. Public vessels are, as regards their internal economy, entirely exempt from local jurisdiction though subject to harbor, sanitary, and similar regulations. Such vessels may be

PORTS, PREFERENCE TO-POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT

out in the article on the postal system of the United States, provision was made for a Postmaster General during colonial days. This office was continued after the adoption of the

required to leave a port. See MARE CLAUSUM; POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT. As pointed NEUTRALIZATION OF CANALS; VESSELS; WATER BOUNDARIES AND JURISDICTION. Reference: Glass, Mar. Int. Law (1885). G. G. W. PORTS, PREFERENCE TO. The Constitu- | Constitution. It was not until 1829, however, tion of the United States provides that no preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one state over those of another: nor shall vessels bound to or from one state be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another (Art. I, Sec. ix, ¶ 6). This clause was the natural result of the jealousies between the states, and of the contests and disputes that preceded the meeting of the Convention of 1787. The provision has recently been the subject of some consideration in connection with the regulation of interstate commerce. In Armour Packing Co. vs. U. S. (209 U. S. 56, 80), the Supreme Court said:"

This provision was intended to prevent legisla tion intended to give, and having the effect of giving preference, to the ports of one State over another State. It may be true that the regulation of interstate commerce by rail has the effect to give an advantage to commerce wholly by water to ports which can be reached by means of inland navigation, but these are natural advantages and are not created by statutory law. The fact that regulation, within the acknowledged powers of Congress to enact, may affect the ports of one State more than those of another cannot be con

strued as a violation of this constitutional pro

vision.

A. C. McL.

POSSE COMITATUS. By an ancient prin ciple of the common law the sheriff or other executive officer of the court may summon any able bodied men within the jurisdiction of the court to assist him. Bystanders may thus be legally called upon to join in arresting persons; more often the sheriff calls upon such persons as he sees fit before starting out upon his mission. It is a clumsy system and breaks down whenever most of the people in the district are disinclined to support the law. In the United States, the principal question in regard to the posse is whether it includes soldiers. Efforts have repeatedly been made to call out troops as though they were individuals, subject only to the demand of the civil authority. This question was raised in the Whiskey Rebellion (see) when arrests were made by the troops. During reconstruction times, efforts | were made to put the federal troops in the South at the disposal of the civil power; but the Federal Government insisted that they were not subject to orders by the local jurisdiction or punishable if they did not obey. See ExECUTION OF PROCESS; ORDER, MAINTENANCE OF; RIOTS, SUPPRESSION OF. References: G. N. Lieber, "Use of the Army in Aid of the Civil Power" in No. Am. Rev., CLXIII, Nov., 1896; "Federal Aid in Domestic Disturbances" in Sen. Docs., 57 Cong., 2 Sess., No. 209 (1903); E. C. Mason, Veto Power (1890). A. B. H.

that provision was made for a Post Office Department, and the Postmaster General became a member of the President's Cabinet. The organic act under which the Department is at present organized and conducted was approved June 8, 1872. This act made no radical change in prior existing conditions, its main purpose being to revise and consolidate the separate laws then in existence.

For purposes of administration, the Department, as at present organized, comprehends nine main divisions or branches, consisting, respectively, of: the office of the Postmaster General, the four offices of the assistant postmasters general, the inspection service, the postal savings system, the office of the purchasing agent, and the office of the chief clerk and superintendent of building. In addition to these there are two other offices of the government attached to other departments, whose duties relate exclusively to postal matters. These are the offices of assistant attorney general for the Post Office Department, who is an officer of the Department of Justice, though his office force are employees of the Post Office Department, and the auditor for the Post Office, who, and his office force, are employees of the Department of the Treasury. For all practical purposes, however, these offices should be treated as part of the administrative machinery for the conduct of postal affairs.

The duties of the chief clerk and superintendent of building, purchasing agent and inspection service are sufficiently indicated by their titles. All of the technical duties pertaining to the operation of the Postal Service are under the direct supervision of one or the other of the four assistant postmasters general. Thus, for example, the first assistant has charge of postmasters' appointments, salaries and allowances and the city delivery service; the second assistant, the railway mail service, foreign mails, miscellaneous transportation, and equipment, in other words matters having to do with transportation; the third assistant, financial affairs, stamps, money orders, registered mails, classification of mail matter, and redemption of damaged stamps and postal cards; and the fourth assistant, the rural mail service, dead letters, supplies, and topography. The postal savings system is administered as a separate service under the direction of the Postmaster General.

This division of duties is made at the discretion of the Postmaster General and is changed from time to time. The significant feature of this scheme of organization is that it follows functional lines. Each assistant postmaster general has the direction of certain