PHILIPPINE ISLANDS to the colleges which compose the University of the Philippines. In 1912 there were 3,364 primary, 283 intermediate, and 38 secondary public schools, the average monthly enrollment being 395,075 pupils. The teachers included 664 tention is paid to primary and to industrial education. The following colleges are affiliated with the University: the College of Engineer court has original jurisdiction in certain mat- | mary, intermediate, and high schools, leading ters and appellate jurisdiction from the courts of first instance and other tribunals. An appeal lies to the Supreme Court of the United States in cases involving the Constitution, laws, treaties or rights of the United States, and in civil causes in which over $25,000 is involved. | Americans and 7,696 Filipinos. Special atJudges of the courts of first instance are appointed by the governor-general and Philippine Commission, they have extensive original jurisdiction and hear appeals from the inferioring, the College of Liberal Arts, College of courts in their districts. The court of land Agriculture, College of Law, College of Vetregistration consists of a presiding judge and erinary Science, Department of Pharmacy, four associate judges. The justices of the the School of Fine Arts, and the College peace have limited civil and criminal jurisdic- of Medicine and Surgery. The Philippine Nortion. They are appointed by the governor- mal School is engaged in an effective work. general and commission from lists submitted The expenditure for education is largely met by the judges of first instance. Assessors may out of insular funds, the American teachers be employed to determine the facts in civil | and the insular teachers being thus paid, while cases in the courts of first instance and justice of the peace. The law officers of the insular government are the attorney-general, solicitor-general, and assistant attorney-generals. The fiscal is the provincial prosecuting attor ney. Order is maintained by the municipal police, at present a poorly organized force of low efficiency, and by the Philippine constabulary, a well-disciplined, highly organized body of native police under, with a few exceptions, American officers. The force consists of about 315 officers and 4,300 men. It is organized and disciplined along military lines, but is dis tinctly a civil organization. It has rendered most efficient service in the suppression of the disorders and lawlessness which followed the insurrection. The defence of the islands is entrusted to the army and navy of the United States, and the cost is met by the home government. The Division of the Philippines embraces the departments of Luzon, the Visayas, and Mindanao, and its strength consists of about 12,000 regular troops and about 5,800 Philippine scouts. These forces are occasionally called upon to quell disorder in the Moro province. Finance. The insular revenue for 1912 was 31,247,633 pesos, of which the customs contributed 17,816,421 pesos, and internal revenue, 9,459,421. The largest items of internal revenue are the taxes on cigarettes, cedulas personales (poll tax), spirits, and licenses. Of these revenues, the receipts from the cedulas are divided between the provinces and the municipalities, equally, and the other internal revenues are divided 60 per cent to the insular, and 20 per cent each to the provincial and municipal treasuries. Certain license taxes accrue solely to the municipalities, while the land tax is levied by and for the provincial and municipal governments. Education. A notable feature of the Philippine administration has been the emphasis upon education, with English as the medium of instruction. The school system includes pri about a third of the municipal revenues is devoted to education. In 1912 the expenditures were from insular funds 3,603,385 pesos, provincial funds 208,157 pesos, municipal funds 2,325,344 pesos. Public Health.-Under the direction of the bureau of health great improvements have been effected in the health and sanitary conditions of the islands. Preventive measures included the cleaning up of the towns, notably Manila, and the installation of new sewers and a safe water supply. In the provinces the problem of securing good water has been met in part by the boring of artesian wells at insular expense. In 1904 a systematic campaign against smallpox, which in 1903 caused 20,359 deaths, was inaugurated. In the next six years 8,166,365 persons were vaccinated with most gratifying results. At present vigorous meas ures are being taken against tuberculosis, which is the principal cause of death in the islands. The efficient marine quarantine service has succeeded in keeping the islands absolutely free from bubonic plague since 1906, but cholera has frequently appeared in the islands and is believed to be endemic in the region north of Manila Bay. Great improvement has been made in the method of fighting this dread scourge and no succeeding epidemic has equalled the great one of 1902-4. Since 1906 the segregation of lepers has been in process on Culion Island. Within four years 4,775 lepers were transferred there and few remain in the other islands. The annual number of new cases has fallen from approximately 750 to 300, and within a generation or two leprosy should be practically eradicated. See CITIZENSHIP IN THE UNITED STATES; COLONIZATION, PRINCIPLES OF; DEPENDENCIES oF UNITED STATES; INSULAR CASES; MANILA; PHILIPPINE ANNEXATION; TERRITORY, CONSTITUTIONAL QUESTIONS OF. References: Philippine Comission, Reports (1900 and following); Census of the Philippine Islands (1905), I, 309-410; W. H. Taft, Special Report to the President on the Philip PHILLIPS, WENDELL-PHYSICS AND POLITICS pines (1908), Present Day Problems (1908), | Lovejoy; and from that time he was preēmi 11-42, Presidential Addresses and State Papers nently the orator of the abolition movement. (1910), 559–567; D. Worcester, The Philippine He was, throughout, closely associated with Islands and their People (1898); C. A. Beard, Garrison, and accepted his views without es Readings in Am. Government and Politics sential modification. He was a delegate to (1911), 380-7; J. M. Dickinson, Special Re- the world's anti-slavery convention at London, port to the President on the Philippines in 1840, and until the close of the Civil War (1910); J. Forman, The Philippine Islands spoke and lectured in all parts of the United (1906); C. H. Forbes-Lindsay, American In-States, with no apparent diminution of popusular Possessions (1906); W. F. Willoughby, larity. He opposed the reëlection of Lincoln Territories and Dependencies of the United in 1864, successfully insisted upon the continuStates (1905), 171-289; F. Chamberlin, The Philippine Problem (1913); D. C. Worcester, The Philippines, Past and Present (1914). PAYSON JACKSON TREAT. ance of the American Anti-Slavery Society, and was president of the society from 1865 to 1870. After the abolition of slavery he interested himself in various reforms, particularly temperance and woman suffrage. In 1870 he was the candidate of the Labor and Prohibition parties for governor of Massachusetts. He died at Boston, February 2, 1884. See SLAVERY CONTROVERSY. References: W. Phillips, Speeches, Lectures and Letters (186381); G. L. Austin, Life and Times of Wendell Phillips (new ed., 1888); T. W. Higginson, Wendell Phillips (1884); L. Sears, Wendell W. MACD. PHILLIPS, WENDELL. Wendell Phillips (1811-1884) was born at Boston, November 29, 1811. In 1834 he was admitted to the bar. He had already developed a strong dislike of slavery, and the sight of the Garrison mob, in October, 1835, made him an abolitionist. His first great speech was delivered in Faneuil Hall, December 8, 1837, at a meeting called to protest against the murder of Elijah P. Phillips (1909). PHYSICS AND POLITICS Geographical Position of the United States.That physical features are an important factor in national development is not now questioned. Among these features are position, land form, the contents of the rocks, the soil, and the climate. America was a reserved continent because it was separated by oceans from the old civilization during many centuries of the more primitive navigation. The continent contained a sparse population and was little used, so far as its chief resources were concerned, down to the time of discovery by Europeans. It was, therefore, a fresh field for human endeavor, opened at a period of modern history when the older countries needed an outlet. Hence it affords an example of geographic influence which is especially capable of analysis. When Columbus and other mariners from Spain and Portugal set out to discover lands to the westward, it was natural that their landfalls should be in the West Indian region, | toward which navigators were directed by the steady help of the northeast trade winds. It is not, therefore, accidental that the northern boundary of Latin America is in its present position. In like manner the French and British explorers and colonists, while facing head winds across the Atlantic, found and exploited those parts of the Atlantic Coast which were most accessible to the home countries. They were, however, forced southward somewhat by finding an inhospitable climate in America, in the latitudes in which they lived when at home. The United States not only has a position across narrow seas from the progressive countries of Europe, but it also lies over against the awakening countries of the Orient. It thus shares with Canada the advantage of spanning a continent and reaching out on either hand to lands across the sea. If Russia extended westward to the North Sea and at the same time were in control of Gibraltar and the Suez Canal, its position would be comparable to that of the United States since the Panama Canal has been completed. Openness on the Atlantic Side. The discov ery, colonization, and, in large measure, the mature development, of North America have been on the Atlantic seaboard, or have proceeded from that region. This, with other conditions, has made possible the extraordinarily rapid development of the country of which it would be difficult to conceive had the continent been approached and exploited from its more closed Pacific side. A physical map of North America shows at a glance that much of the eastern coast possesses a broad coastal lowland, with many tidal rivers and deep bays. In the larger view these reëntrants and channels embrace the Gulf of Mexico, the Chesapeake and Delaware Bays, the Hudson River, the Gulf of Maine, the Gulf and River of St. Lawrence, and even Hudson Bay, though the last is of larger future than past significance. By means of these many tidal avenues, and by using several easy passes across the eastern highlands, the entire interior PHYSICS AND POLITICS of the continent as well as its eastern parts, | lay one of the broadest areas of productive is tributary to the Atlantic Ocean. Even large soil to be found among the temperate latitudes sections of the Cordilleran region drain of the world. Not only is the productive cathrough Hudson Bay to the Atlantic. Influence of the Features of the Atlantic Slope. The Atlantic lowlands are most fully developed within the present United States where the first settlements were made, and important cities began their growth. Lying at hand were fertile lands serving as an accessible hinterland for these centres; and over this is spread a continuous population from New England to Georgia. pacity vast, and the rainfall abundant, but the surface lends itself to agricultural operations, and transportation is favored both by land and water. A less open, but effectively used pass served to link Philadelphia and the Delaware embayment with the headwaters and fertile country of the Ohio River. This avenue of traffic led along the lower Susquehanna, crossed the Appalachian ridges first through Bedford, later Back of the lowland lay the Appalachian along the valley of the Juniata, surmounted ranges, which were comparatively rugged and the Allegheny escarpment, and led on to Pittswere covered with forests. They served, there-burgh. This was an important channel for the fore, the purpose of a useful barrier and cover westward movement, as it is now efficient until the colonial settlements of the lowland | through the trunk line of the Pennsylvania had grown compact and strong, and a spirit of Railway system. unity was secured among the diverse racial and social elements of the people. In natural contrast to these favoring conditions may be placed the ineffective diffusion of the French explorers and colonists in the St. Lawrence region and the great interior. The one people laid the foundation of a government and a nation, while the other scattered their energies over a continental wilderness. This is, of course, not wholly attributable to physical opportunity, for it is necessary to take into account the comparative temperament of the English and the French, and the somewhat fugitive aims of the latter in the field of the fur trade and in missionary endeavor among the scattered native tribes. Influence of the Passes. When the population of the lowlands became fairly compact, the ambitions of the more enterprising and the increase of population led about 1760 to the use of the Appalachian passes, and to the first trans-Appalachian settlements. In this stage of early history and down to the present, these passes have had a large function in the distribution of population, the development of industry, and the formation of new commonwealths. The lowest and most open of these passes is along the Hudson and Mohawk valleys, followed by early trails, the first turnpikes, the Erie Canal and several trunk lines of railway. Thus the lower lake plains and fertile lands of western New York were added to the hinterland of New York City, and the way was opened to settlements along the Great Lakes; and a stream of immigration flowed from New England and New York to the broad lands which now embrace the north central states, or so-called Middle West. In this manner all this territory was, in a partial sense at least, added to the hinterland of the metropolis. At the same time the Lakes exerted their own proper influence in the growth of such cities as Buffalo, Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, and Milwaukee. The waters offered most effective transportation, and around them and west of them A third crossing of the Appalachian highland is found along the valley of the Potomac, and westward to Cincinnati and the middle Ohio River. Its eastern termini are Baltimore and Washington, and it has been followed more or less closely by Braddock's Road, the National Road, the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, and the Baltimore and Ohio Railway. The southerly passes are more difficult and less closely related to each other. These conditions, in the past, gave large importance to the broad depression known as the Great Appalachian Valley, which is axial to the entire systems of eastern highlands and includes the Cumberland Valley of Pennsylvania, the Valley of Virginia, and the Valley of East Tennessee. Not only is this a zone of fertility and dense population, but it controlled a stream of immigration from Pennsylvania and other colonies, leading to the southwest, a population which might otherwise have pushed into the forested uplands directly on the west. The result was the settlements in east Tennessee, and at Nashville, and the movement through the Cumberland Gap under Boone and others, and a new center established in the blue grass region of Kentucky. Early Western States.-To the influence of this great valley is due the admission into the Union of Kentucky and Tennessee, the first states from the region west of the Appalachians. Through these passes moved the people, who, in half a century prior to the Civil War, expanded the population across the Mississippi plains to the base of the Rocky mountains. States were set up after short periods of development; and railway and steamboat traffic rapidly came to large proportions in the middle west. The opening of these vast agricultural areas quickened the East in its passage from general agriculture and from individual and household crafts or small factories to special agriculture and corporate industry. These changes were made possible by the food supply from the PHYSICS AND POLITICS interior, and favored by ready water power, abundant coal supply, and nearness to the commercial opportunities on both sides of the Atlantic. self of the privilege which was sure to come to some city on the western edge of the grea plains, of becoming the chief center betwe the Missouri River and the Pacific coast. Sa Francisco is central to the Pacific coast of the United States, and by means of its harbor and bay and its relations to the central valley of California, had become a center of sufficient importance to attract the first transcontinen tal railways. The Puget Sound ports are not only natural termini of traffic by the northern natural relations in which they stand to the growing trade with Alaska and the Orient. Late Development of the Cordilleran Region. -Since this region was far removed from the early discoveries and settlements on the Atlantic it was naturally the last to be explored, and settled. There was a general opinion that it was worthless, and such sentiments found voice in Congress at the time of the Louisiana Purchase. Its great mineral values were un-routes, but have been greatly advanced by the known, but the barrenness of much of it under natural conditions was well understood; and no thought of the possibilities of irrigation entered the minds of the American people at that time. Much of it was plotted on the early school maps as the "Great American Desert." The region was inaccessible from the East by reason of remoteness, primitive transportation, and the wide and dreary stretch of the great plains. Many tribes of warlike savages also made operations dangerous to the white man. Nevertheless about 1842 began an overland movement to Oregon followed by the discovery of gold in California, and a lively movement toward this plateau and mountain country. The building of railways was deferred by the Civil War; and enterprise halted before the commercial inactivity of the Oriental nations. Thus the slow progress of the far West was due in part to historical and in part to natural conditions. Routes and Centres of the Cordilleran Region. -As elsewhere, the location of routes was controlled by the diversities of land surface and by the distribution of natural resources. The available routes for railways across the belt proved to be numerous. The first road completed from the Mississippi Valley to the Pacific coast was the Union Pacific, connecting with the Central Pacific, a route which availed itself of the low pass of the Rocky mountains in Wyoming and the rich Mormon settlements on Great Salt Lake (see PACIFIC RAILROADS). Other rail routes follow tributaries of the Missouri River until they pass the Rocky Mountains and descend to the ports of Puget Sound, paralleling the traverse made by the explorers Lewis and Clarke in 1805. The interior centers on these railways are determined by the location of the mineral deposits of Montana and Idaho, and the agricultural areas of Washington. Portland is determined by the accessibility of rich lowlands in Oregon, and by the port facilities of the lower Columbia and Willamette rivers. The southern rail routes pursue comparatively open courses across the southern Rockies, and the plateaus of New Mexico and Arizona, and enter California to the southward of the high Sierra wall which separates most of the state from the Great Basin on the east. Denver owes its origin to somewhat local conditions, but by progressive life availed it Range of Resources.-The territory of the United States has diversity of latitude an this diversity is effective because it includes both the distinctly temperate, and the subtropical belts. Special conditions intervene to give almost tropical warmth to limited parts of the Southwest. Not only latitude, but con ditions of land and water, of altitude and of prevailing winds, introduce a variety of cor ditions suited to many products of the soil. Canada has a larger surface than the United States, but is far more limited in the climatic range of territory available for crops. In minerals, also, the United States has a comprehensive supply, including the industrial substances, coal, iron, and copper, the precious metals and all the other important metals except tin. Certain tropical products such as coffee, rubber, cocoa, spices, dyewoods, and the heavier cabinet woods, do not thrive within our territory, and they offer occasion for permanent international and interzonal trade. Hence the United States cannot expect to be self-sufficient in material things. Unification and Expansion.--The territory of the United States is very large, and embraces several regions of great diversity of surface, climate and material resources. If we accept the ordinary principles of geographic influence on nations, we must expect to find such diver sity of type and historical movement as would express itself in sectional communities. As a matter of fact, both diversifying and unifying forces are at work; and these forces in both directions are partly geographie, but largely social and historical. Almost violent sectionalism manifested itself before the Revolution when the people of the original colonies saw the processes of expansion west of the Appalachians in other hands. The natural tendencies of the first transmontane groups were towards independence and the establishment of a sov ereignty in the Mississippi valley. These tendencies were foreseen and felt by the early statesmen of the federal Union, and were coun teracted in part by the speedy utilization of the Appalachian passes as means of ready munication. com Sectionalism was favored in the South by differences of climate and production, and by the introduction and growth of slavery, and PHYSIOCRATS-PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA the plantation system. Thus Mason and Dixon's line became more than an arbitrary boundary, and the south central states were divorced in interest from those of the upper Mississippi basin. These differences have largely passed away through the abolition of slavery, and the introduction into the South of modern industrialism. The natural conditions are resuming their sway, political lines are less rigidly drawn, and this result is fostered by new lines of communication between the Great Lakes and prairies in the North, and New Orleans, Galveston, and the Gulf in the South. This unification may be hastened by the completion and use of the Panama Canal, and is similar to the unification taking place on the great plains between the United States and Canada. Minneapolis and Winnipeg do not greatly differ in spirit and commercial or industrial type because they are on opposite sides of the international boundary; there is little to mark the passage from the farms of North Dakota to those of Saskatchewan. A distinct approximation of principles, ideals, and practical life has been evident in recent years as between the East and the Middle West, and any sectionalism observed in the Cordilleran region is transient and due to the recent emergence from the status of a frontier. In all these changes we should not fail to mark the influence of increasing maturity, of the wide diffusion of education, and of a vast interstate and interregional commerce. These influences are largely social, but are also in part based on the geographic factors of facilities for transportation and communication. These factors are geographic because they root themselves so deeply in the forms of the land, and the physical relations of sections. The breadth of the Mississippi valley, and its increasing population and wealth of resources make it the largest unifying factor which is observable in the national life. It stands in easy relation to the great seaboards of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf Coasts, and seems more and more destined to carry such balance of power as to make effective sectionalism impossible. It is significant also, that our extraterritorial expansion, though the subject, in the past, of radical differences of opinion, will prove a unifying force. If the incorporation of distinct territories seems to introduce alien elements it also stimulates effort toward their assimilation, and solidifies the national sentiment in its relation to the other powers. These considerations have had a considerable part in the movement for the Isthmian Canal, and have thus indirectly, at least, contributed to the closer union of the East and West. See AMERICAN GOVERNMENT AND GEOGRAPHY; FRONTIER IN AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT; PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA; RESOURCES OF NORTH AMERICA; SECTIONALISM; TRAILS AND PORTAGES; WEST AS A FACTOR IN GOVERNMENT. References: A. P. Brigham, Geographic Inflences in Am. Hist. (1903), From Trail to Railway through the Appalachians (1906); E. C. Semple, Am. Hist. and its Geographic Conditions (1903), Influences of Geographic Environment (1911); L. Farrand, Basis of Am. Hist. (1904), chs. i, ii; B. A. Hinsdale, How to Study and Teach Hist. (1894), chs. x, xiv, xv; A. B. Hart, National Ideals (1907). ALBERT PERRY BRIGHAM. PHYSIOCRATS. See ECONOMIC THEORY. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA Continental Mass.-The continent includes: | altitude, and have resulted from the longthe great body of continuous land surface; the continued denudation of mountainous lands. marginal sea bottom which is covered by shal- From New York southward to Florida the lowlow water, and known as the continental shelf; lands are smooth and consist of strata which and the islands off the shores. Some of these are geologically young and which have suffered islands, such as many of the barrier beaches no deformations. They were parts of the conalong the coast of New Jersey or North Caro-tinental shelf and have become land by the lina, are built by wave action on the conti- slow emergence or uplift of this part of the nental shelf, and others are of coral origin. Some are mountainous uplifts, while others still are parts of old and deeply dissected mountain ranges standing on the borders of the continent and isolated by partial submergence. North America as a continent, therefore, is in a sense as complicated in structure and as much the result of prolonged evolutionary processes, as though an organic form. Eastern Lowlands.-In New England and parts of the maritime provinces there are along the Atlantic coast hilly lowlands which vary from a few feet to a few hundred feet in continent. The same type of surface continues as the Gulf plains through the southern states, and along the eastern border of Mexico. The surface slopes gently to the sea, is moderately dissected by streams, and many of the rivers have tidal courses. At the inner edge of the plain the rivers descend abruptly from the Piedmont or higher ground on the west, at what is called the Fall Line. Examples are the falls of the Potomac above Washington and the rapids of the James at Richmond. Because it marks the head of navigation, a number of cities have developed at this point on various |