PENNSYLVANIA settled mainly in the valleys of the Delaware | vention and the state was organized under it and Schuylkill rivers. Finally came the Scotch March 4, 1777. The Articles of Confederation Irish settling in the western part of the prov-| (see), adopted by the Continental Congress ince. November 15, 1777, were ratified by the PennColonial Politics.-The widely differing vari-sylvania assembly April 30, 1778. When this ety of race among the settlers caused continu- | frame of government was superseded by the ous dissension in political life and laid the Constitution, Pennsylvania was the second of foundation for an intense desire for local self- the states to ratify it by an assembly vote of government and an antipathy to uniform con- 46 to 23. trol. The Quakers were peace-loving and refused to engage in warfare for any reason. In this policy they were usually followed by the Germans but were strenuously opposed by the Scotch Irish, to whom the Quaker policy of non-resistance did not appeal. Penn and his successors appointed Quakers as governors and councillors; the Quakers, although in a minority numerically, usually succeeded by manipulation in controlling the elective assembly; and both governors and assemblies steadfastly refused to appropriate money even for Constitutions.-The state constitution adopted in 1776 provided for a supreme executive council, composed of twelve members, to act as the executive power, one-third of its members retiring each year. The legislature was composed of one house, called the general assembly, to be elected annually. The council and the assembly, sitting together, were to elect a president who, in conjunction with the council, had the power of appointing the attorney general, the judges, and other important state officials. Finally the constitution provided for a PENNSYLV ΙΑ LAN D JERSEY 10 BOUNDARIES OF THE STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA, SHOWING TERRITORIAL CHANGES defense and frequently blocked coöperation in | "council of censors," elected from the cities the colonial wars. Their attitude was a source and counties every seven years, whose duty of constant annoyance to the militant Benja- was to watch over the constitution and to see min Franklin. Occasionally opposition to the that officials lived up to it faithfully. The sufpeace-loving policy was successful, as when in frage was given to all freemen over twenty-one 1756 the Quakers voluntarily withdrew as can-years of age who were taxpayers, and who had didates for the assembly. Thereafter the aggressive party was in control, although the Quakers and Germans often either refused active military and financial support or gave it sparingly. This attitude continued even in the War of Independence and evoked criticism from the other colonies. been residents of the state for one year. This constitution was unpopular from the beginning; it was not submitted to the people for ratification and this fact together with its cumbersome provisions gave ample ground for ridicule to those who were now called anticonstitutionalists. Sentiment grew in their favor from year to year and a constitutional convention assembled in 1789. This convention framed the constitution of 1790 which was submitted to and approved by the people of the state. It provided for a governor, who should be elected for three years. He was given large powers in the appointment of state and local In September, 1774, the first Continental Congress assembled in Philadelphia because it was the most centrally located city in the colonies. After the battles of Lexington and Concord, the assembly of the province practically superseded the authority of the proprietor by the appointment of a committee of safety with Benjamin Franklin as its presi-judges and other officials. The legislature condent. A convention for the purpose of framing a state constitution met July 11, 1776, and finished its labors September 28 following. The constitution was put in force by the con sisted of two houses, a senate elected for four years, and a house of representatives chosen annually. The time of residence required for voting was extended to two years. Gradually there PENNSYLVANIA grew up a demand for a more democratic frame | ed and hold office for three years. Every mie of government, finally resulting in the draft of citizen twenty-one years of age, who has been a third constitution which was ratified in 1838 a citizen of the United States one month, a by the narrow margin of 113,971 to 112,759 resident of the state for one year and of his votes. The governor, who continued to be elect-election district for two months, and who has ed for three years, could not serve more than two terms in any nine years. The senatorial term was reduced to two years and most of the offices were made elective. All white freemen over twenty-one years of age, who had been residents of the state for one year, and had paid taxes within two years, were given the right of suffrage. The judiciary term, which had been held during good behavior, was reduced to fifteen years for the supreme court, ten years for presiding judges of lower courts, and five years for their associates. In 1850 an amend-unvarying. ment to the constitution made the judiciary | constitution of 1776 naturally became Antielective. within two years paid a state or county tax has the right to vote at all elections. However, by amendments to the constitution ratified in 1901, regulations in regard to registration of voters may be passed by the legislature, provided that regulations made for cities of the same class be made uniform. Such a law was passed in 1906 but it applies chiefly to cities of the first and second classes. Political Parties. The history of political parties in Pennsylvania has been peculiarly The radical supporters of the Federalists or Democrats in 1790, and the makers of the constitution of 1790 easily found themselves on the Federalist side when national politics replaced state issues after the adoption of the United States constitution. Thomas Mifflin, elected by his personal popularity, was governor during two terms from 1790-1799. In 1799, Thomas McKean carried the state for the Anti-Federalists or Democrats and was reelected during the two terms following. Pennsylvania thus became the "keystone" on which the Democratic party depended largely, but internal trouble soon arose and McKean was elected for a third time in 1805 as an independent moderate Democrat (1799-1808). The party was reorganized In his annual message to the legislature in 1871, Governor John W. Geary pointed out that too much time was consumed by the legislature in passing bills, and that the constitution was otherwise defective. A new constitutional convention met at Harrisburg and later at Philadelphia, and framed a new constitution which was ratified by popular vote December 16, 1873. This is the constitution under which the state is still working (1914). The term of the governor was again extended to four years, with the provision that he should not succeed himself. The office of lieutenant-governor was created. The governor appoints a secretary of the commonwealth, an attorney general, and a superintendent of public instruction. He has the right to veto any bill, but it may become a law over his veto by two-thirds vote of both houses of the legislature; he may also disapprove of any item in state appropriation bills. Biennial sessions of the legislature replace the annual sessions. The legislature is composed of a senate of fifty members, elected for four years, and a house of representatives elected for two years, both chosen from districts formed for this purpose. Special or local legislation of most kinds is specifically prohibited and, if not prohibited, is safeguarded by publicity requirements. The judiciary of the state consists of a supreme court of seven members, elected for twenty-one years and ineligible for reëlection, of a court of common pleas, oyer and terminer, of general jail de-ernor for one term from 1835-1839. In the livery and subsidiary courts. On account of the pressure of business on the supreme court, the legislature on June 24, 1895, created an intermediate court, called the superior court, which is composed of seven men, elected for ten years. under the radical wing and elected Simon Snyder governor from 1808-1817. He was followed by William Findlay, Democrat, from 18171820. Internal dissensions again arose in the party, and the Federalists elected Joseph Hiester governor in 1820 by the narrow majority of 1,584 votes. In 1823 the Democrats immediately came into control again and J. Andrew Schulze was elected governor for two terms, 1823-1829. In the presidential election of 1824, Andrew Jackson received over three times the number of votes received by all other candidates, 36,100 to 11,337; but five years later George Wolf, Democrat, was elected governor by a narrow margin for two terms, against the Anti-Masonic party 1829-1835. The latter, in 1835, succeeded in electing Joseph Ritner gov presidential election of 1836, Van Buren's majority was small, only 4,364 votes, showing that Jackson's majorities had rapidly declined. Although the state remained practically Democratic to the Civil War, yet the majorities were It has only appellate jurisdiction | so small as to throw Pennsylvania into the list except in cases of habeas corpus, and final ju- of doubtful states. When Harrison and Tyler risdiction only in certain cases. Other state were nominated in 1840, the state went Whig officials are elected by the people; the state by a plurality of 349 and a majority of 6. treasurer for two years, the auditor general Governors David R. Porter (1839-1845), and for three years, and the secretary of internal Francis R. Shunk (1845-1849), were Demoaffairs for four years. County officers, such crats. Because of Shunk's resignation, elec as sheriffs, coroners, treasurers, etc., are elect- tions for President and governor were held PENNSYLVANIA in 1848 and the Whigs were successful in table enterprises scattered through the state, both, the electoral vote being cast for Taylor whose employees constitute a reciprocal conand Fillmore. William F. Johnston was stituency; (6) the effect of the mountain tochosen governor (1848-1852). William Big-pography of the state whose valleys magnify ler, Democrat, succeeded him (1852-1855), local interests and hinder concerted action. and Bigler's place was taken by James Pol- Attention is frequently called to the fact that lock who was elected by a combination of Pennsylvania is the only state crossing the the Whig and American parties (1855-58). mountains which has not divided along the Before Pollock's term was over, the state mountain tops. There are really two states gave a splendid majority to its native son, in one, seaboard interests dominating the eastJames Buchanan, the Democratic candidate for ern part and its chief city, inland interests President. William F. Packer, Democrat, be- control the western end and its chief city. One came the next governor (1858-1861), but the United States Senator has been chosen reguearly Quaker opposition to slavery showed it- larly from each city and the governorship given self in 1860, when the issue was squarely put to each end of the state by turn. State assoand Abraham Lincoln received the electoral ciations alternate their meetings in the same vote of the state. Since that time its vote manner. The Democratic party, weakened by has been cast for the Republican presidential long absence from office and the loss of the ticket until 1912. Twice only have the Demo- disciplinary power of patronage, has been accrats been able to elect a governor and then cused of bargaining with the controlling party because of internal dissension within the op- for office. Occasional dissatisfaction is maniposite party. The following is a list of the fest as when in 1906 William H. Berry, a governors from 1860 to the present time: An- Democrat, was elected state treasurer. In drew G. Curtin, Republican (1861-1867); John 1910, the Socialist party polled 53,053 votes W. Geary, Republican (1867-1873); John F. and elected one member of the state assembly. Hartranft, Republican (1873-1879); Henry In 1912 the Progressives elected 25 members M. Hoyt, Republican (1879-1883); Robert E. of the legislature. Pattison, Democrat (1883-1887); James A. Beaver, Republican (1887--1891); Robert E. Pattison, Democrat (1891-1895); Daniel H. Hastings, Republican (1895-1899); William A. Stone, Republican (1899-1903); Samuel W. Pennypacker, Republican (1903-1907); Edwin E. Stuart, Republican (1907-1911); John K. Tener, Republican (1911 ). School System.-The school system, as determined by the school code of 1911, divides the state into four classes of school districts according to population, which are supervised by boards of school directors varying in number from five to fifteen according to the class of the school district. These directors provide free books and school supplies and meet in superintendent who may have one or more assistant superintendents, if the number of school districts in the county exceeds 200. School attendance is compulsory for children between eight and sixteen years of age for at least 70 per cent of the school term. The educational policy of the state is directed by a superin tendent of public instruction and by a state board of education composed of six members who hold office for six years. The state appropriates money for thirteen normal schools and for higher education in several institutions. The almost unbroken line of Republican gov-convention every four years to elect a county ernors indicates that Pennsylvania has been for years one of the safest of the Republican states in national elections. In the four campaigns beginning with 1896, the plurality of the Republican presidential electors almost reached 300,000, and in the campaign of 1904 when Theodore Roosevelt was elected President, it attained the unprecedented number of 505,519 votes. During the last twenty years in the national House of Representatives, the Republicans have enjoyed a total representation first of twenty-eight and then of thirty-two members, while the number of Democrats in the same body has never been more than ten and was only one in the Fifty-ninth Congress. The two large cities of Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, especially, have shown themselves to be the strongholds of the Republican party. Population. The population of Pennsylvania in 1790 was 434,373, including 3,737 slaves. In 1850, it had reached 2,311,786. The census of 1900 showed a total population of 6,302,115, of whom 982,543 were whites of foreign birth. In 1910 the number of people in the state had The strength of this party organization, per- grown to 7,665,111. This rapid increase in the haps unparalleled outside a municipality, has population of the state is due to its immense been attributed by various writers to: (1) the opportunities in agriculture, mining, and manreciprocal benefits derived from a paternalistic ufacturing. A large part of this population tariff; (2) the easily influenced foreign vote; has always been foreign-born and employed in (3) the apathy and antipathy of the many re- common labor in mines and mills. This, toligious sects; (4) the power of two large cities gether with the fact that the state is separated easily controlled, in offsetting the rural vote into a number of natural divisions by mounand in smothering independent movements; tains and rivers, has prevented complete assim(5) the effect of appropriations made to hun- ilation of the population and created the probdreds of hospitals, "homes" and various chari-lems which accompany a foreign element. PENSION BUREAU-PENSIONS, CIVIL See CONSTITUTIONS, STATE; GOVERNOR; PAR- | ian method of securing the removal of thes TY ORGANIZATION IN PENNSYLVANIA; STATE whose further retention leads to inefficiency GOVERNMENTS; STATE LEGISLATURE. and the blocking of the road to promotion for those younger and more capable. Their demand has found expression in presidential messages recommending the passage of retirement legislation; in the introduction of numerous retire ment measures in Congress and state legisla References: F. N. Thorpe, Federal and State Constitutions and Charters (1909), V, 30353152; Colonial Records and Pennsylvania Archives (1852-1907); S. Hazard, Annals of Pennsylvania, 1609–1682 (1850); Report of the Resurvey of the Maryland-Pennsylvania Bound-tures; and in the organization of public en ary Part of the Mason and Dixon Line, authorized by the Legislatures of Maryland and Pennsylvania (1909); H. P. Miller and others, Smull's Legislative Handbook and Manual of the State of Pennsylvania (1910); A. S. Bolles, Pennsylvania, Province and State, 1609-1790 (1899); B. Farree, Pennsylvania, a Primer (1904); S. G. Fisher, The Making of Pennsylvania (1898); H. M. Jenkins, Pennsylvania, Colonial and Federal (1903); J. R. Sachse, The German Sectarians of Pennsylvania, 1708–1742 (1899); I. Sharpless, Two Centuries of Pennsylvania History (1900), Quakerism and Politics (1905). EDWIN EARLE SPARKS. ployees in support of these measures. Only a very small minority of public employees are, today, however, subject to a pension system and in the federal service civil pensions are practically unknown except for judges. Such pension systems as now exist are generally to be found in branches of the public service akia to the military and naval services-in which general pensions have existed for years-and also where service involves some bodily riss, such as the revenue cutter service and police and fire services in cities. Exceptions to this rule are to be found in the case of pensions to school teachers and in local pension legislation of recent date. Foreign Pension Systems.-Recognition of a duty on the part of the state towards its em ployees who have become incapacitated after long years in its service appears in European countries from an early date. The first general pension act in England was adopted in 1810, but superannuation funds had existed in cer PENSION BUREAU. The office of commissioner of pensions was established in the War Department in 1833, and in 1849 became a bureau of the Interior Department. Its chief function is to examine and pass upon claims for pensions under the laws of the United States providing for pensions for service in war. It is divided into numerous divisions. | tain departments prior to that date and a praeThe Bureau has power to decide and certify who is entitled to a pension and the certificate of the commissioner of pensions is prima facie evidence of title. Many private pension bills, providing for payment in particular cases, are passed by Congress. See INTERIOR, DEPART MENT OF; PENSIONS. References: C. H. Van Tyne and W. G. Leland, Guide to the Archives (1907), 209-219; J. A. Fairlie, National Ad-larly regarded as inequitable and in 1857 the ministration (1905), 205–208. A. C. McL. tice of granting superannuation allowances out of general revenue to deserving employees had also obtained. By acts of 1822 and 1834 fixed contributions from the salaries of employees were required. Investigations by a committee of the House of Commons, appointed in 1856, proved that the contributions were inadequate to meet the charges; the system was popu act of 1834 was repealed. Under the superannuation act of 1859, a system of free or "straight" pensions at government expense was established; those reaching the retirement age. receiving one-sixtieth of the latest salary re ceived, for each year of service, up to fortysixtieths. General complaint on the part of the employees that the pension was taken into account in fixing low salaries led to the ap pointment of a Commission of Inquiry in 1902, A law, which was enacted in 1909, reduced the maximum pension to forty-eightieths of the salary received, certain benefits being as sured to those who retire or die before reaching the retirement age. In the other countries of Europe and in Canada and New Zealand the pensions are generally in part contributory and in part at the expense of the state, but a great diversity in system and in the amount of the contributions exists. PENSIONS, CIVIL. Advantages.-The granting of pensions or retirement allowances to employees of the civil service is exceptional in the United States, although long established in the leading countries of Europe and in Canada and New Zealand. There exists an unquestioned popular prejudice in this country against the granting of civil pensions, founded on the belief that they are contrary to American ideals; and this has been fostered, in part, by popular recognition of extravagance and dishonesty in the granting of military pensions. This prejudice has, however, been diminishing in recent years for several reasons. Increasing recognition has been given to the economic value of properly devised pension or retirement systems. This has led to their adoption by a considerable number of railroads and large industrial plants as well as American Systems. In the United States leading institutions of learning. The higher the civil pension systems in force are entirely administrative officials of the government as lacking in uniformity both as regards contriwell as the employees, favor some humanitar-butions by employees and as regards the bene PENSIONS, CONFEDERATE PENSIONS, CONFEDERATE. While the fits received on reaching the age of retirement. The straight pension has been adopted in a few | eleven former Confederate states are large concases, but usually the system is in part con- tributors through federal indirect taxation to tributory. Some systems are purely voluntary the support of the national pension system, for the employees to enter into or not, as they they have willingly undertaken the additional see fit; others fix no retirement age, but re- burden of caring for their own veterans. All quire merely a certain length of service. In of them are maintaining state pension systems certain cases the superior officer is given no for ex-Confederates and their widows, supportpower to retire the superannuated. In general, ed by a special direct tax on assessed property, the older systems are crude and are not based or taken out of general treasury funds. The on actuarial statistics which permit of the administration of the pension system is usually ascertainment of the future cost to the govern- under direction of the state auditor or compment of their continued maintenance. Amend- troller, though Tennessee, Louisiana, and Floriments are frequently made to them, increasing |da have state boards of pensions; and Georgia the benefits accruing to the employees. This and Texas have each a commissioner of pendiversity in system is well represented by pension conditions in New York City. Members of the police force are required to contribute two per cent of their salaries; members of the fire department contribute nothing. School teachers contribute one per cent; members of the street cleaning force, three per cent; members of the health department, who voluntarily enter the system, one per cent. The police pensions are easy to obtain. Any policeman who has served twenty years is entitled to retire on half pay. sions. Since 1879, Georgia, the state most interesting in its pension system, has expended over $17,000,000 for this purpose. This began with appropriations for artificial limbs in 1879 and again in 1887; regular payment of annual invalid-pensions dates from 1889. In 1893 widows of Confederate soldiers who died from causes of service origin were placed upon the pension roll. Provision was made for indigent veterans in 1896. Increasing liberality was shown in 1902 by granting pensions to indigent In 1911, the legislatures of Illinois and Mas- widows of Confederate soldiers without regard sachusetts passed acts providing for general to the cause of the husband's death. In 1911 pension systems, in part contributory. The a new service-pension law had the effect of Illinois plan applies to cities of over 100,000 increasing the number of Georgia pensioners inhabitants and the Massachusetts law to em- to 19,764, and the expenditures for the ployees of the state and the metropolitan dis-year to $1,180,000. Georgia pays to the dis trict. Proposed Federal Plans. Bills recently before Congress have provided for a retirement system based solely on contributions, as advocated in the annual message of the President to Congress in December, 1910, as well as for the straight pension system, which is endorsed by a majority of the organized federal employees. Under the bill to carry out the contributory plan the government is to keep an individual account with each employee and to guarantee a minimum rate of interest upon the contributions made; contributions are to be based upon annual salary and age of entrance into the service and are fixed at such percentage of salary as will provide at compound interest upon reaching the retirement age an adequate annuity. See PENSIONS FOR TEACHERS; MILITARY AND NAVAL. PENSIONS, abled rates ranging from $150 a year for total loss of sight to five dollars a year for loss of a thumb. These may be compared with federal rates for the same disabilities of $1200 and $96 respectively. The pensions of all widows and indigent soldiers under the Georgia system are at the rate of $60 a year. While Alabama ranks next to Georgia in total annual expenditure, it is worthy of note that Florida takes first place in liberality of rates due to a special tax levy of four mills upon the dollar of all taxable property for pension purposes. The following table exhibits pension statistics collected from the various southern states for 1910. Several of these states have increased largely their pension appropriations for more recent years. State Alabama Georgia References: U. S. Civil Service Commission, North Carolina Mississippi Texas Total |