PATRONAGE ii). Up to the time of the Civil War the | in removing from that department the element President maintained actual as well as nominal of reward for party service. In 1881 the concontrol of appointments. But during and since test between President and Senate was brought that period the amount of patronage in the to a crisis by Garfield's struggle with the New national government has vastly increased and York Senators, which resulted in their resignathe political manipulation of appointments has tion and appeal to their state legislature for become exceedingly complex. Gradually virtu- vindication. The emotional recoil from the al dictation as to certain offices has been ac- spoils system following the President's assasquired by the Senators. Senatorial courtesy sination led to their defeat and marks the de(see COURTESY OF THE SENATE) secures to each cline of the dictatorial power of the Senate. Senator control over appointments in his own Since the repeal of the Tenure of Office Act state. The Senate, by withholding ratification the Senate is in the same legal position that from appointments displeasing to any member, it occupied in 1867, but "Senators continue has at times forced the executive to recognize unofficially and 'by courtesy' to be the main its claim to a share in the choice of appointees. dispensers of patronage." In both his adminThus the Senate has secured some of the power istrations Cleveland gave offense to his party formerly exercised by the executive. Some supporters by his independence in making apSenators (see PARTY ORGANIZATION IN PENN-pointments. Both Harrison and McKinley SYLVANIA) prefer to retain all patronage in used the patronage to secure legislation on their own hands, distributing it where, in their judgment, it "will do the most good." Others consult with their Representatives as to appointments in their several districts and as to those in districts where the opposite party is in power. The patronage for states that have no representation in Congress of the party in power is dispensed by the President and the party committees. The Republican use of this power in the southern states, where practically no effective party organization exists, reacts strongly on the national convention of that party. Although Congress has encroached upon the power of the President in respect to patronage, it cannot entirely destroy his control of governmental appointments. No Senator or party boss can actually make an appointment. In form, the initiative and the responsibility are still with the President. | e. g., the Erie Canal in New York. Fortunately On the other hand, the fact that certain members of Congress came to be known as dispensers of patronage gave to the President a new and valuable means of influencing congressional action. the tariff question. The recent incident of the attempt of President Taft to influence legislation by withholding patronage from the "Insurgents" (see) and the President's own confession of its futility operated rather in favor than against the "insurgent faction" of his party. It shows, also, how the civil service reform has affected the popular attitude toward offices, even outside of the classified service. State and Local Patronage.-In most states the amount of possible patronage is insufficient seriously to affect party organization. There are, in each state, a number of public institutions and commissions whose officers are appointed by the governor, with or without the coöperation of the legislature. Some states carry on extensive systems of public works, education-except in the matter of building contracts, supplies, etc.-has usually been considered outside the domain of politics, and teachers have been chosen primarily with a view to fitness for their positions. Through the influence and coöperation of Senators federal patronage is often combined with that of state and city-the machine makes no distinction as to the source from which useful favors come. In the field of state and local government the city furnishes the greatest display of the misuse of patronage, since elective officers are few and appointments numerous. Public works give employment to many contractors and laborers, especially where the municipality operates its own public utilities. There are, also, in large cities many federal appointees who, under the party system, are all chosen by or with the assent of the party boss. This combined federal and local patronage has been the largest contributing factor in building up the corrupt machine (sce). The number of voters who get or expect to get employment in case of a party victory is so large that it tends to destroy true party balance. Largely because of the need of controlling this power PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY-PAUPER LABOR in cities several states have already enacted | preserved between those few offices whose incivil service laws intended to take most of cumbents are responsible for determining party the appointive offices out of politics. policies and fulfilling party pledges, and those the sole business of whose incumbents it is ta apply and carry out the party principles and policies. A change of parties should properly involve change only of the few political officers, leaving undisturbed the great body of parties would hold their rightful position before the voters, having equal standing and making equal appeal for support. This ideal is attained under the English cabinet system. See APPOINTMENTS TO OFFICE; Boss; CIVIL SERVICE; COURTESY OF THE SENATE; LOBBY; MACHINE, POLITICAL; PARTY FINANCE; SENATE; SPOILS SYSTEM. Patronage and the Party System.-Because the party organization has been so largely subsidized by the patronage (see PARTY FINANCE) some writers aflirm that our present party system cannot continue without this partisan use of the offices. That it is not in-administrative minor officials. Then the two dispensable to the party is shown in every state by the continued existence of the minority party unaided by the hope of patronage. The doubtful states where the expectation of favors may help both parties are comparatively few in number. Third parties also continue to exist without patronage. Instead of being the support of the party system, patronage tends rather to its destruction. Patronage is in fact a concealed form of bribery; the giving of office or contracts as reward for party service works insidious corruption of political morality. Unconsciously a large proportion of the voters come to regard offices as perquisites | Service and the Patronage (1905), chs. viii-x; of the party, as gifts bestowed upon the faithful, rather than as positions of public trust. Horace Bushnell well observed that such a system "would corrupt a nation of angels." When corruption has entered through the spoils system it thrives and spreads to other methods of political influence. References: J. G. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress (1886), II, 267-274, 647-651; C. A. Dana, Recollections of the Civil War (1898). 174-177; C. A. Beard, Am. Government and Politics (1910), 189-193; C. R. Fish, Civil P. S. Reinsch, Am. Legislatures (1907), 29, 30, PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY. See PATRONS OF INDUSTRY. A name that has sometimes been applied to the Grangers (see) or the "Patrons of Husbandry." It may, also, be a misnomer for the "Sovereigns of Industry," an order which was organized in 1874, in Springfield, Massachusetts, under the leadership of William H. Earle, a fruit grower, of Worcester. Earle wished to establish an order whose membership might be morc extensive than that of the "Patrons of Husbandry" (Farmers' Grange); so the "Sovereigns of Industry" provided for the admission of other industrial workers than farmers. The motto of the order was "coöperation," and it sought to resist the encroachments of monopolies and to secure a more equitable system of An extensive patronage in the hands of one party tends to overthrow the entire system of political organization by keeping that party in permanent control of the government. Entrenched behind a wall of places filled by party supporters it can defy any party backed by mere principles to oust it. This is most clearly evident in some of the large cities, where the hope of federal and city patronage combined can almost alone be relied upon to main tain the party in power. But the party thus strengthened is, in reality, weakened by its false security. There are never spoils enough to "go round." The hungry outsiders are envious of those who fatten comfortably at the party crib, and the "ring" which controls the distribution of favors comes to be regarded with disapproval by the party members who receive little or nothing of the political lar-exchanges. A number of cooperative stores gesse. Bitter factions grow up and their selfish strife rends the party asunder. The plain citizen, asking neither office nor other favors, comes to look upon all political activities, as mere pursuit of personal gain-elective as well as appointive office seeming also a part of the spoils controlled by the faction dominating the nominating machinery-and too often he retires in helpless disgust from all participation in public affairs. The real purpose and end of a dual party system is to formulate diverse political views and present them to the people for choice. The party in office should have no better chance than its opponent to influence opinion or win votes. A sharp line of distinction should be were established, but these through bad management or treachery failed financially. The last national council was held at Newark, N. J. in March, 1879, when the order was dissolved. J. A. W. PAUPER LABOR. The term pauper labor is applied to all work done at wages below those necessary to maintain the American standard of living, even though the laborer is not really a pauper. The protection of the American laborer against the competition of the products of pauper labor has been the leading argument for the protective tariff policy. No similar protection has been accorded against the coming of the "pauper laborer" PAUPERISM-PAVEMENTS himself. Only those who are really paupers, | work is so contracted for; all repairs and and those coming under contract have hitherto maintenance work being done by day labor been debarred by our immigration laws. See CONVICT LABOR; FREE TRADE AND PROTECTION; IMMIGRATION; TARIFF COMMISSIONS; TARIFF POLICY OF THE UNITED STATES. Reference: J. R. Commons, Races and Immigrants (1907), 155-59. J. R. C. PAUPERISM. See DEFECTIVE CLASSES, PUBLIC CARE OF; OLD AGE PENSIONS; POVERTY AND POOR RELIEF; SOCIAL REFORM PROBLEMS. PAVEMENTS. The word pavement is derived from the Latin word pavimentum meaning a "hard surface," a "floor rammed or beaten down." Authority to Construct Pavements.-Authority to construct highways is usually granted by state constitutions or legislatures to corporations, municipalities, and commissions. Turnpike companies have found it economical not only to grade and surface their turnpikes, but also to protect portions of them with some form of durable pavement. Municipalities are authorized to lay pavements on highways and in payment for the same are empowered to issue municipal bonds under certain restrictions; and to assess all or a part of the cost of the pavement upon real estate abutting on the highway. State highway commissions have, in many states, within recent years, been authorized to construct state highways, using various forms of pavements; and in payment therefor the state uses its credit by issuing state bonds, usually running for ten to thirty years. Pavement Assessments.-The practice regarding the assessment of cost of pavements varies widely. In many localities, especially in the central and western states, some portion or all of the cost is assessed directly on the abutting real estate. In others the entire cost is assumed by the municipality, the pavement being considered a "general public benefit." In the issue of bonds, the time within which the bonds shall mature and be paid should not be more than the probable life of the pavement for which the bonds are issued. directly in the employ of the municipality. In others (as in Cambridge, Mass.) all the work is performed by day labor. This is the most expensive method; but the quality of the work obtained is most satisfactory. Varying Demands on Pavements.-The present extensive use of the motor driven vehicle has brought about a radical change in the requirements for pavements, tending to eliminate the cheaper and less durable kinds. Consequently there is great demand for various types of coal-tar, asphalt, and petroleum oil products combined with cracked stone for augmenting the life and usefulness of the old forms of "Macadam" pavement, making it capable of extended use at moderate cost. In the better and more expensive grade of pavements a substantial base of concrete or other material and a smooth, impervious surface is more generally demanded. A few of the more important types of modern pavement are the following: Stone Blocks.—(1) Belgian blocks-made of large sized blocks of trap rock-very durable, apt to be rough and noisy, to wear smooth and uneven. Their use is diminishing. (2) Large sized granite blocks—extensively used in eastern states on streets having heavy traffic, very durable, very noisy, apt to wear with rounded faces and become uneven. ex (3) Medina sand stone blocks-used tensively in the central states, fairly durable, somewhat noisy, do not wear smooth nor become slippery. (4) Small sized granite blocks-usually laid on concrete base with joints grouted with cement or filled with pitch compound. Very durable, fairly smooth, not very noisy when well laid and grouted—a very satisfactory pavement. (5) Small stone sets-used extensively in Germany (called "Kleinpflaster"), and in England (called “Durax”). The stone cubes or sets are very small, laid on a concrete base like a mosaic. Highly recommended by those who have seen it. Brick Paving Blocks.-The first brick pavement in this country was laid in 1870. Paving of Street Railway Tracks. It is Since that time the use of vitrified brick blocks practically universal to require the street rail-in certain sections of this country has enorway companies having tracks in the streets to fill with an approved type of pavement the space between the rails of the tracks, in many instances, also a space from one to two feet in width just outside the rails. Construction and Maintenance.-A great variety of practice exists in the methods employed in the physical construction and maintenance of pavements. A special executive officer of the municipality is usually put in charge of the construction of the streets and pavements. In some cities (as in St. Louis) all work of this character is done by contract. In others (as in Boston) only the new construction mously increased. When well laid, a brick pavement is fairly smooth, durable, easily cleaned, but is apt to be somewhat noisy. Wood Blocks.-The first attempts to use wood as a paving material were largely failures. Inadequate foundation and imperfect preservative treatment caused early decay of the wood and disintegration of the pavement. At present the wood is first thoroughly sterilized and then impregnated with a preservative compound. When laid upon a concrete base the pavement is smooth, noiseless, sanitary, easily cleaned, but at times is somewhat slippery, especially in wet weather. PAWNSHOPS, MUNICIPAL-PAYNE-ALDRICH TARIFF Asphalt.-(1) Sheet asphalt.-For many | private citizens and the prefect of police. years this has been a very popular pavement There is a main office with a number of and enormous areas have been laid in many of branches. It is an official monopoly; no other the larger cities of the country. The pave- pawnshop is allowed to exist within the m ment is smooth, noiseless, sanitary, but slip-nicipality. Municipal pawnshops in French pery. Its durability varies greatly. (2) Asphalt blocks. The asphaltic compound is mixed with cracked stone and the blocks formed under heavy pressure. When laid on a concrete base, these blocks make an attractive pavement, but it has not proved durable for anything but light traffic. provincial cities are managed by a small commission with the mayor as president, and representatives of the town council, the hospitals, the charity bureau, and, sometimes, the savings bank. There are municipal pawnshops in all the large cities of Italy, Spain and Belgium; and there is considerable agitation for them in England. Bitulithic. This pavement is made by mixing a hot bituminous compound with a minerał aggregate carefully graded in sizes to produce In the United States the business has until a dense mixture. The pavement is smooth, recently been entirely in the hands of private noiseless, sanitary, not slippery and fairly dur- | pawnbrokers who do business under state reguable. lations or municipal ordinances. Recently, Macadam or Cracked Stone.-In many of the philanthropic-commercial enterprises like the states the abundance of good materials, ease of construction, and low first cost has made this class of pavement extremely popular. The use of a bituminous compound as a matrix or binder for the stone seems likely so to increase the life and usefulness of the pavement as to offset the increase in its cost. Provident Loan Society of New York, founded in 1894, have entered this field. Ohio has authorized municipalities within its borders to engage in the pawnbroking business. As yet no municipal pawnshops are operating in the United States. See MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT, FUNCTIONS OF. References: W. H. Dawson, Municipal Panshops (1906), ch. xiii; U. S. Department of Commerce and Labor, Bulletin No. 21 (1899); Massachusetts, Labor Bulletin, July-Aug., 1907, 41-45. F. D. WATSON. PAYMASTER GENERAL. The Paymaster General is the head of the Paymaster General's department of the United States Army. The department is charged with the payment of officers, enlisted men, and all other persons in the military service. There is also a Paymaster General of the Navy. See OFFICERS, MILITARY AND NAVAL; SUPPLIES AND ACCOUNTS, BUREAU OF; WAR, DEPARTMENT OF. References: Secretary of War, Annual Report; J. A. Fairlie, National Administration of the A. N. H. PAYNE-ALDRICH TARIFF. This tariff was enacted August 5, 1909, so called after the names of the respective chairmen of the House committee on ways and means and the Senate In a great majority of the cities of Prussia | U. S. (1905), 144. of more than 50,000 inhabitants, the existing municipal pawnshops date back no further thian the first half of the nineteenth century. It should be remembered that not all public pawnshops are municipal. For example, Berlin has no pawnshop under municipal author-finance committee. The Dingley Act of 1897 ities but there is a royal Prussian pawn of had become ill adjusted to existing industrial fice under control of the Royal Bank, estab-conditions. Moreover, there was an increasing lished 1834. Throughout Germany one also animosity towards trusts, whose growth was finds private pawnshops which operate side by believed by many to be fostered by the tariff. side with those under public control. In Au- The national Republican platform of 1908 destria the system is somewhat similar to that inclared that, "The true principle of protection Germany. It combines royal pawnshops with provincial and municipal pawnshops. is best maintained by the imposition of such duties as will equal the difference between the In no country are municipal pawnshops more cost of production at home and abroad together highly developed than in France, and in no with a reasonable degree of profit." Although city. does the institution bulk so large in pub- this cost of production principle had been imlic interest as in Paris, where it was founded plied in the platform of 1904 it was now more as early as 1777. It is a distinct bureau of consistently stated, and was heralded as a the municipal government and includes in its solution for revising the tariff by a test apcontrol three members of public charities, three 'proaching scientific accuracy. Mr. Taft, can PEACE, CONCLUSION OF didate for President, spoke in favor of "revision," generally understood downward. PEACE, CONCLUSION OF. The conclusion of peace involves the termination of hostile relations between the belligerents, and puts an end to the status of neutrality on the part of other states. Prior to the conclusion of peace, hostilities may be suspended by an armistice, or truce. The legislative outcome did not meet popular expectation, for while the the tariff of 1909 made some reductions and adjusted rates to current needs of manufacturers, it was, in the main, governed by the same fundamental principles which characterized the acts of 1890, In early days peace might be the result of 1894, 1897. Certainly the reductions were not the complete submission of one of the belsufficient to decrease the cost of living. The ligerents. Such peace was usually regarded as committee on ways and means, under the lead-conquest. The conqueror then absorbed the terership of Mr. Payne, endeavored to make some ritory and population of the conquered state; comparisons of costs; extended hearings were but peace through such conquest is not now held and a large amount of statistical data common. gathered. But, as in the preparation of former Sometimes peace results from the simple cestariffs, special interests claimed and lobbied | sation of hostilities for a considerable period, for special consideration. As before, the Sen- with no evident intent to renew such action. ate exercised a dominating influence, its com- The examples of this method in case of the mittee on finance holding sessions in private. wars between Spain and her South American The Senate made 847 amendments-for the colonies are numerous. most part upwards. In particular the House duties on iron, hides, coal, and lumber were increased. There was general agreement that specific duties as a check to undervaluation should be substituted for ad valorem duties wherever practicable. When the bill reached the conference committee President Taft endeavored to exercise influence in behalf of lower rates. Hides were placed on the free list and the duties on coal and iron, leather and lumber, were reduced. In its final form the act carried advances on cotton and silk goods. On wool and woolers (Schedule K) there were but few minor changes, and it was here that the public expected radical revision. President Taft later declared that it was an unjust schedule. Popular suspicion was aroused and it was claimed that the act covered certain jokers, that is, clauses which by indirect and ambiguous phraseology made changes which, though apparently downward, were in reality upward. The termination of hostilities, may not, however, mark the conclusion of peace, for it is not always possible to determine at what time hostilities cease and sometimes hostilities in different sections of a country cease at different times. The two proclamations, more than four months apart, declaring the Civil War closed, specified the areas to which the proclamations applied. For civil war the conclusion of peace would usually be by proclamation. The conclusion of peace is most commonly by treaty. Such treaties are frequently preceeded by protocols covering in a preliminary way the matters which treaties cover in a formal and more complete manner. The protocol of August 12, 1898, signed by the French Ambassador as representative of Spain, and by the American Secretary of State, on behalf of the United States, provided for: (1) Relinquishment of title to Cuba; (2) cession of Porto Rico, etc.; (3) occupation of Manila; (4) evacuation by Spain; (5) appointment of peace commissioners; (6) suspension of hostilities as soon as notice could be There were, however, some reductions. The publishers won a fight for lower wood pulp and print paper, and it was made possible for American millers to use for domestic consump-given. tion the by-products of the manufacture of The treaty by which peace was concluded flour from Canadian wheat. Imports from the was not signed till December 10, 1898, after Philippines were treated with a more liberal long deliberations by the commissioners apspirit. In all there were numerous decreases pointed under the terms of the protocol. The in rates but many of them were for slight treaty of peace was much more comprehensive amounts or affected articles of little commer-than the protocol, as is evident from the titles cial importance (see TARIFF RATES). Of more of its articles: (1) relinquishment of Cuba; importance was the abandonment of the principle of reciprocity (see) as provided in the act of 1897 and the introduction of maximum and minimum duties. To assist the President in determining when the maximum duties should be applied, authority was given for the establishment of a tariff board. See ALDRICH, N. W.; and under TARIFF. References: F. W. Taussig, Tariff Hist. of the U. S. (4th ed., 1910), 361-408, Am. Year Book, 1910, 34, ibid, 1911, 52. DAVIS R. DEWEY. (2) cession of Porto Rico, Guam, etc.; (3) cession of Philippine Islands; (4) Spanish trade with the Philippines; (5) return of Spanish soldiers from Manila, evacuation of Philippines and Guam; (6) release of prisoners; (7) relinquishment of claims; (8) property relinquished and ceded; (9) property and civil rights of persons in ceded territory; (10) religious freedom; (11) legal rights in ceded or relinquished territory; (12) determination of pending judicial proceedings; (13) priv. ileges of copyrights and patents reserved in |