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IRRIGATION AND IRRIGATED LANDS

water into canals on each side. Below the dam is a power house where electric power is developed and thence transmitted to a series of pumps which lift the water from the Southside gravity canal to successively higher elevations, irrigating lands lying 90 feet or less above the elevation reached by the gravity supply.

The other project, in Idaho, is supplied by the waters of Boise River. The principal storage dam, the Arrowrock, is being constructed at an estimated cost of about $7,000,000, to a proposed height of nearly 350 feet, being probably the highest dam in the world.

of development. In many localities interstate | Snake River 40 feet, diverting a portion of the or international problems were involved, or first cost made the work prohibitory. Hence, on June 17, 1902, Congress passed what is known as the Reclamation or Newlands Act, which appropriates to be expended directly by the government, in the reclaiming of arid lands, the money obtained from the disposal of public lands in the western states. From 1902 to 1913, this fund amounted to upwards of $80,000,000; and it has been expended by the Secre. tary of the Interior in the construction of large reservoirs, canals, and other works for irrigation of arid lands. This water, provided by storage of floods, is disposed of to the owners of small tracts, the area being limited to the amount necessary for the support of a family, and in no case to exceed 160 acres. The lands themselves thus reclaimed are not sold but are given away to homestead entrymen on condition of three years residence. The estimated cost of the water, however, must be repaid in not exceeding ten annual instalments. This is usually about $40.00 per annum or $4.00 per acre per year for ten years, exclusive of cost of operation and maintenance of the system.

Great Irrigation Systems.-Among the more notable of the irrigation projects built under the terms of this act are the following:

The Salt River project in Arizona, designed to irrigate over 220,000 acres. So far, has been expended about $10,000,000, of which $3,500,000 was for the Roosevelt Storage Dam, one of the largest structures of its kind, which impounds 1,284,000 acre feet, consisting mainly of flood waters.

On the Colorado River between California and Arizona, is the Yuma project, designed to irrigate 130,000 acres. The principal feature of this is a remarkably long, low weir or overflow dam, nearly a mile in length (4780 feet) costing about $1,500,000, raising the water nearly 15 feet and diverting it into a large canal provided with sluices at the head to wash out the rapidly accumulating mud. The most interesting feature of this dam is the fact that it rests not on bed rock but upon river silt. The principal canal taken out on the California side continues for about 20 miles and then passes under the river by a siphon tunnel, 14 feet in diameter, excavated in the soft stone or indurated sands beneath the river bed.

In Colorado, the chief work is on the Uncompahgre project in the western part of the state, and consists of a tunnel six miles in length, taking the Gunnison River water under a high ridge. This tunnel delivers the water to large canals which encircle the valley of Uncompahgre River. The amount invested is approximately $9,000,000 and it will serve 140,000 acres.

In Idaho are two notable projects, one at Minidoka, consisting of a dam raising the

In Montana are several projects more or less noteworthy, the principal one being that by which the waters of Yellowstone River are taken out upon about 60,000 acres of land in eastern Montana, extending into North Dakota.

In Nebraska there is also an expensive project supplied by water stored behind the Pathfinder dam on the North Platte River in Wyoming. The cost of this dam was $1,700,000 and the total cost of the project, if completed according to the plans, will be considerably over $10,000,000.

In Nevada is the Truckee-Carson project, utilizing waters which flow from Lake Tahoe into Truckee River. In the lower course of this river the stream is diverted and carried across the divide to Carson River where there is being built a large storage reservoir to hold the accumulated floods of both streams. The waters thus obtained are being used upon extensive tracts of desert.

On the Rio Grande, in New Mexico, is being built a very large structure known as the Engle dam to create a reservoir of a capacity of 2,627,000 acre feet, designed to store the entire flow of that river and hold the floods of one year over until the next, or until the water is used or lost by evaporation. This stored water is to be diverted on 130,000 acres in New Mexico and 25,000 acres in Texas, a portion being turned to Mexico in accordance with the treaty with that country.

In the state of Washington, extensive works are being built at the headwaters of Yakima River to provide storage in the natural lakes and in the artificial reservoirs. The water thus held is being utilized in various canal systems owned by the government, the excess water being sold to other canals built by private enterprise.

In northern Wyoming is what is reputed to be the highest existing dam in the world, the Shoshone, 328 feet above foundations. It holds back the floods of the river of that name, which are diverted by a lower dam and carried through a tunnel about three miles long to the lands in the Big Horn Basin.

Outcome of the Irrigation Policy. The following table shows in a general way the results of the operation of the reclamation act from

ISOLATION POLICY

year to year, viz., the receipts for the public | be ample to carry out the approved plans for lands and the amount expended:

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The total expenditures exceed the receipts from sale of the public lands as some of the amount expended is recovered and immediately invested.

The Newlands act, under which the above described works were built, is the fruition of the ideals of conservation initiated largely by the energies of Major John Wesley Powell, for many years director of the U. S. Geological Survey, which were crystallized into effective laws and organizations by Theodore Roosevelt, and his intimate friend and assistant, Gifford Pinchot. In a large way, this policy involves the protection of the forests upon the mountain areas, for the purpose not merely of supplying timber, but for the beneficial influence upon the streams. It also includes the build ing within the mountain valleys and elsewhere of the large reservoirs for holding the floods until a time when the waters are needed for irrigation, water power, or other uses. result of this policy, great areas of otherwise useless mountain land have been set aside in national forests.

As a

The outcome is that, if this work is continued and the funds invested in such work are returned by the beneficiaries, there will be a continually increasing development and larger and larger areas of land otherwise useless will be converted into highly productive areas ca pable of supporting a large population. The primary object of the law, while that of reclaiming the land, includes a far higher benefit, namely, that of making opportunities for citizens to secure small farms and homes where, as independent landowners and taxpayers, they become the most valuable support of the commonwealth.

By 1913, over 15,000 families had been supplied with water, 1,250,000 acres had been reclaimed, and works were under way for bring ing water to a total of about 3,000,000 acres. There were also tentative plans looking to the construction of still larger works whenever funds become available.

In addition to the funds which are being derived from the disposal of public lands, and those which are coming back from the construction of works, it has been proposed to extend the work by the issue of bonds; by act of June 25, 1910, authority was granted to issue $20,000,000, but the money in hand appears to

the years 1911, 1912, and 1913.

See CONSERVATION; FOREST SERVICE; INTERSTATE LAW AND RELATIONS; PUBLIC LANDS AND PUBLIC LAND POLICY; PUBLIC WORKS, NATIONAL, STATE AND MUNICIPAL; STATES AS PARTIES TO SUITS; WATER SUPPLY.

References: H. M. Wilson, Irrigation Engineering (2d ed., 1896); W. G. Bligh, Practical Design of Irrigation Works (2d ed., 1910); U. S. Geological Survey, Annual Reports (since 1888), "Water supply and Irrigation Papers" in ibid, 1896; U. S. Reclamation Servive, Annual Reports (1901-1912); F. H. Newell, Irrigation (3d ed., 1912); F. H. Newell and D. W. Murray, Principles of Irrigation Engineering (1913); Special Committee of the U. S. Senate, "Report on the Irrigation and Reclamation of Arid Lands" in Sen. Docs., 51 Cong., I Sess., No. 928 (1889); Irrigation Congress, Annual Reports (since 1900); W. H. Hall, Irrigation Development in France, Italy and Spain (1886); U. S. Census, Irrigation Bulletins, 1889-1899, 1909; Am. Year Book, 1910, 293, 304, 1911, 425–433, 1912, 255–261. F. H. NEWELL.

ISOLATION POLICY. The American isolation policy was a theory based on the geographic insular situation and the early experience and self-confidence of the republic, whose earlier statesmen desired separation as far and as long as possible from European complications. It received stimulation, after 1793, from experience with France regarding the Treaty of Alliance of 1778. Under this policy, America, needing time to develop her institutions and unity, has usually declined joint action with European powers even in cases of the highest common interest. The exigencies related to the opening of the Far East, in which she actively participated, have been a departure from that policy.

That America practically has never known a policy of isolation from affairs really concerning her is evidenced by the treaty of 1778, by willingness to adhere to the European Armed Neutrality in 1780, and by Jefferson's willingness to consider alliance with England in 1803 and 1805.

The earlier policy of isolation was gradually modified by the course and exigency of events. When no longer tenable, it logically merged into a policy of paramount interest, emphasized especially since the Spanish War brought enlarged activity in international affairs.

See BALANCE OF POWER; COMMERCE, INTERNATIONAL; MONROE DOCTRINE; NEUTRALITY, PRINCIPLES of.

References: A. C. Coolidge, America as a World Power (1908) ch. ii; A. B. Hart, Foun dations of Am. Foreign Policy (1901), ch. i; J. B. Moore, Digest of Int. Law (1906), VI, 369379; W. F. Reddaway, Monroe Doctrine (1898), ch. i; Richard Olney, "International

ITALY, DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS WITH

Isolation of the U. S." in Atlantic Monthly, | Secretary Blaine, who, expressing regret, urged

LXXXI (1898), 577; bibliography in A. B.
Hart, Manual (1908), § 175.

J. M. C.

ITALY, DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS WITH. Diplomatic relations with consolidated Italy began by the appointment of George P. Marsh as envoy and minister in March, 1861. Italy was friendly to the Union during the Civil War. In 1864 she conceded a naval depot on certain conditions; it was never established. Treaties relating to consuls and extradition were negotiated in 1868, and a treaty of commerce and navigation in 1871, supplemented by later treaties. In the struggle between the civil authority and the Pope, the United States refused to be involved, but held no official intercourse with the Pope after the abolition of his civil power.

Governor Nicholls of Louisiana to bring the guilty parties to justice. The Italian premier, probably influenced in aggressiveness by an approaching meeting of the Italian parliament, demanded summary punishment and indemnity. Blaine's explanation, that under the American dual form of government the institution of judicial proceedings in the case belonged entirely to Louisiana, was regarded as an equivocation. Without waiting for further failure of judicial proceedings in Louisiana, Baron Fava, the Italian minister, withdrew from Washington, leaving diplomatic relations practically suspended.

In 1892, the voluntary offer of indemnity by the United States, and the payment of over $24,000 from the diplomatic fund for this purpose, resulted in the renewal of friendly relations which have since continued-although oc

Italian emigration to the United States, in-casionally affected by such incidents as the significant before 1870, but gradually increasing thereafter and rising rapidly in 1889, raised several questions affecting both the domestic policy and Americo-Italian relations, such as expatriation and naturalization; new immigrant laws; the padrone system; and consular inspection of emigrants at Naples.

In 1891 occurred an incident which opened grave international complications, and called attention to the obligation of the United States as a national unit in the enforcement of its treaty obligations. A New Orleans mob on March 15 forcibly entered the jail and shot several Italians who had been placed on trial for the murder (in the previous October) of Mayor Hennessey, who had been investigating the operations of the Mafiosi, an oath-bound secret society indigenous to Sicily. The Italian government promptly sent a protest to

closing of the Italian immigration bureau at Ellis Island in 1898 and 1899, and reflections by the American industrial commission upon the integrity of Italian officials. Lynching cases similar to the New Orleans case occurred in Colorado in 1894 and in Louisiana in 1896. A new commercial treaty was negotiated with Italy in 1900 and an arbitration treaty in 1908.

See COMMERCIAL POLICY AND RELATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES.

References: E. B. Andrews, U. S. in Our Own Time (1903), 567-74; W. E. Curtis, U. S. and Foreign Powers (1892), ch. xvi; D. R. Dewey, National Problems (1907), 206–07; J. B. Moore, Digest of Int. Law (1906), I, 129–31, 608-16, II1, 344-53, V, 344-46, 731, VI, 837– 41; Nineteenth Century, XXIX (1891), 701-18.

J. M. CALLAHAN.

JACKSON, ANDREW—JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY

J

JACKSON, ANDREW. Andrew Jackson | ed McLane in the Treasury Department, but he (1767-1845), seventh President of the United States, was born in Mecklenburg county, N. C., March 15, 1767. In 1788 he was admitted to the bar, and presently removed to Tennessee, where he became United States district at torney, member of the state constitutional convention in 1796, and later judge of the state supreme court, 1797-98. He was the first representative of Tennessee in Congress, and for a brief time was Senator. His defeat of the British at New Orleans in January, 1815, and some arbitrary actions on his part in Florida in 1818, made him a national figure. In 1823 he again became Senator. In the presidential election of 1824 he received the highest number of electoral votes, 99, but there was no choice, and J. Q. Adams was chosen by the House. In 1828 he was elected President, receiving 178 electoral votes against 83 for Adams. In 1832 he was reëlected.

was opposed to Jackson's plan. Jackson dismissed Duane from office. Taney succeeded, and carried out Jackson's plans. On December 26, Clay introduced in the Senate a resolution which was the basis of the Resolution of Censure, adopted in the Senate on March 28, 1834, by a vote of 26 to 20. This set forth that the "President, in the late executive proceedings in relation to the public revenue, has assumed upon himself authority and power not conferred by the Constitution and laws, but in derogation of both." Since the power of impeachment and trial is given to Congress, Jackson protested that it had no other power to punish him. The Senate refused to enter Jackson's protest on its journal. Senator Benton took up the cause of Jackson, and finally, by a vote of 24 to 19, an expunging resolution was passed. Black lines were drawn around the Resolution of Censure, and across it was The eight years of his presidency saw the written, "Expunged by order of the Senate, rise and fall of nullification in South Carolina, this sixteenth day of January, in the year of the tariffs of 1832 and 1833, the overthrow of our Lord 1837." References: W. MacDonald, the United States bank, the settlement of long-Jacksonian Democracy (1907), ch. xiii; T. H. standing differences with England and France, Benton, Thirty Years' View (1874), I, 402–431. the public land crisis and deposit act, the formation of the Whig party, and the reconstruction of the Democrats; and in most of these events Jackson was the dominating force. He dictated the election of Van Buren in 1836. To the demoralization of the federal civil service which attended his advent he was indifferent, but his administration brought the Federal Government more directly than ever under con-lowing was at first largely personal, but in trol of the voters, at the same time that he the campaigns of 1824 and 1828 it came to be largely freed the executive department from identified also with the new democratic printhe control of either Congress or the courts. ciples for which Jackson, in opposition to the He died at the Hermitage, near Nashville, June National Republicans (see), was supposed to 8, 1845. See BANK OF THE UNITED STATES, stand (see JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY). The reSECOND; DEMOCRATIC PARTY; PRESIDENT, AU- organization of parties drew into the new THORITY, AND INFLUENCE OF; PRESIDENTIAL Democratic party most of the Jackson men; ELECTORS; WARS OF THE UNITED STATES. and by 1832 the latter term ceased to be References: W. MacDonald, Jacksonian Democ-employed as a party designation. Reference: racy (1906); J. S. Bassett, Life of Andrew W. MacDonald, Jacksonian Democracy (1906). Jackson (1911); W. G. Sumner, Andrew JackW. MACD. son (rev. ed., 1898); J. Paton, Life of Andrew Jackson (1861); T. H. Benton, Thirty Years' View (1854-56). W. MACD.

T. N. H.

JACKSON MEN. The name "Jackson men" was applied, for some years after 1820, to those who, while retaining for a time the name Democratic-Republican (see DEMOCRATIC PARTY), favored the election of Andrew Jackson (see) as President. The Jackson fol

JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY. Between the political ideas of Jefferson, most commonly designated as Jeffersonian republicanism, and JACKSON, ANDREW, CENSURE OF. An- those of which Jackson was preeminently the drew Jackson was opposed to the second Unit- embodiment there was, naturally, much in ed States bank (see), and desired the govern- common. Both agreed in opposing aristocratic ment deposits removed, which could be done or oligarchical control in government, and in only at the discretion of the Secretary of grounding political action upon the opinion of Treasury. In 1833, William J. Duane succeed- 'the majority of voters. Both opposed the cre

JAILS JAPAN, DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS WITH

routine he was indifferent, save in clear cases of dishonesty; and he surrendered easily to the spoils system. He evinced hardly more than an elementary acquaintance with the principles of public finance; and his opposition to the Bank of the United States (see) represent

ation of an office-holding class, and sought to | really desired. To the character of the civil reduce the practical activities of government service and the efficiency of administrative to their lowest terms. Both favored economy in public expenditure, extinguishment of the national debt, and a tariff primarily for revenue. In the matter of constitutional interpretation both were strict constructionists, seeking to preserve the rights of the states against the encroachment of federal authority, and be-ed less a hostility to that particular institulieving in the amendment of the Constitution to adapt it to new needs, rather than its extension by usage, judicial interpretation, or executive application; though neither of them hesitated at extra-constitutional action when, in their judgment, national exigency required it (see JACKSON, ANDREW, CENSURE OF).

tion than a fear of monopoly and a distrust of banks as such. As between a tariff for revenue and a tariff for protection he took no decided stand, nor was he consistent in his opposition to internal improvements. On the other hand, his aggressive policy, joined to a vigorous use of the veto power, went far to reconcile deTo these primary conceptions of democracy mocracy and executive domination, and raise Jackson made some significant additions. He the executive to a position of leadership which, was little inclined to doctrinaire statements of save for brief intervals, it has ever since repolitical theory, and for the most part gave tained. See DEMOCRATIC PARTY; JACKSON, expression to his political opinions only in con- ANDREW. References: H. J. Ford, The Rise and nection with specific official acts. "The people" Growth of Am. Politics (1898), chs. xiii-xvii; upon whom he professed to rely, and whose J. S. Bassett, Life of Andrew Jackson (1911); ideas he assumed to voice, represented the low- W. MacDonald, Jacksonian Democracy (1906), er rather than the higher average of intelli-ch. xviii. W. MACD. gence, property, and political aptitude; and the figures of a popular vote were less convincing than his own impression of what "the people" TIONS AND LOCKUPS.

JAILS. See COUNTY JAILS; POLICE STA

JAPAN, DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS WITH

to open intercourse. Perry, dignified, determined, tactful, master of the methods of the Orient, commanding many mysterious "black ships," would neither depart nor negotiate through Nagasaki. Under orders to use no force, he yet secured proper reception of the President's communication to the Emperor requesting amity and intercourse, July, 1853. On his return, in 1854 the Shogunate, persuaded more by American power represented in ships and machines than by diplomacy, negotiated Japan's first treaty with a western nation (March 31, 1854). It accorded to the United

Conditions and Principles.—An admixture of political with religious zeal in the seventeenth century missionaries created in Japan's rulers a distrust which resulted in an embargo on foreign intercourse, though the advantages of foreign trade were not wholly unappreciated. The advent of Perry with his wonderful ships and machines revealed the handicap of isolation. Traditional misgivings of the Japanese concerning possible aggression, strengthened by conscious ignorance of conditions in the outer world, were reflected in an under-current of hesitancy in the renewal and early development of foreign intercourse. Still the Ameri-States: peace; amity; ports at Shimoda and can principle of separate action, coupled with respect for Japanese sovereignty and sympathy with Japan's aspirations for complete autonomy, won the increasing confidence of the Japanese and faciliated diplomatic relations. That principle was consistently maintained except for emergencies created by Japan's antiforeign agitation and internal disorders during the sixties.

Intercourse Opened. The main motives for American insistence in opening intercourse with Japan were the rapid development of the Pacific coast after the gold discovery of 1848; the growing trade with recently opened China; importance in this trade and in whaling of accessible harbors in Japan for supplies and refuge; and sanguine estimates of commerce. Japan had haughtily repelled repeated efforts

Hakodate where ships might obtain wood, water, provisions, coal, and might exchange goods; adequate protection of shipwrecked sailors and ships in distress; the residence of consular agents at Shimoda if deemed necessary by either government; and most favored nation treatment in the event of subsequently negoti ated treaties.

Additional Treaties (1855-1860).-The patient, resolute, yet sympathetic diplomacy of Townsend Harris, first American consul-general and minister to Japan (1856-62), opened wider the door; secured the coveted rights of commerce withheld from Perry; and laid the foundations of diplomatic intercourse with the United States. The Shogunate, embarrassed by internal discontent, sought to temporize by obstruction and narrowly interpreting the

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