It is obvious that such a system as I have suggested involves the necessity of legislative action, and the enactment of laws adapted to the special requirements of its execution. In fact, an amendment of the Constitution is necessary before the first steps can be taken toward its accomplishment by the General Assembly.

I propose now to set forth, in as few words as possible, some of the essential facts in regard to the practice of drainage, which every man should bear in mind who undertakes it. Open ditches may be, and often are, necessary auxiliaries to a system of underdrainage, and especially in a very level country, where, in many cases, the final outlet may be at a great distance from the field or farm which is to be underdrained, or where the accumulated water-shed of a large area is too large to be contained in tiles.

When it is found necessary to construct them, they should always be made with sloping sides and the most natural slope is the one which is most likely to be permanent and this is found to he at an angle of about thirty-four degrees with the horizon.

Tiles must be large enough to carry off all the water which may come suddenly in a storm or by the melting of snow, so that there may be no surface washing. The main must be large enough for any possible demand; and in determining its size, the possibility of future extension should always be borne in mind.

The capacity of pipes, however, increases in the ratio of the squares of their diameters. A twoinch pipe carries four inches of water, but a four-inch pipe carries sixteen inches, or just four times instead of twice as much as a two-inch. In draining extensive marshes or swamps, it may be necessary to use tile of very large dimensions; but in the ordinary sloughs which are found on the prairie farms, a four or six inch pipe will suffice for the main, and nothing whatever is gained by using tiles of a larger size than is necessary, while the cost is very much greater. A good deal of misapprehension prevails on this subject, owing to the disappointment of those who had first used pipe that was too small, and were then ready to go to the opposite extreme.

A letter now lies before me from a zealous advocate of drainage, who says that "large tiles are the best, for they are not so apt to fill up, and then they take the water off so much faster. The larger the body of water in the tile, the cleaner it will keep it."

There are fallacies in this argument of which the writer will become convinced by further experience, for his knowledge of tile draining has been gained within a year. His last statement is doubtless correct, but the body of water cannot be increased by the use of larger tile, and its liability to deposit silt is increased just in proportion as it becomes shallow in the pipe. Moreover, if it deposits silt or sand at all, it is only a question of time when the pipe shall become choked, and the largest pipe will be insufficient to withstand a constant influx for any great length of time. If at any season, the amount of water is larger than the pipes can carry off, it is obvious that they are not large enough; but when there is no sign of an overflow, and the first rush of water speedily subsides after a hard rain, there can be no object in using larger pipe.

"The size of the mains should be sufficient to convey, with such fall as is attainable, the greatest quantity of water that may ever be expected to reach them. Beyond this, an increase of size is rather a disadvantage than otherwise, because a small flow of water runs with more velocity when compressed into a narrow channel than when broadly spread, and so has more power to force its way and carry before it obstructing substances."-French's Farm Drainage, page 192.

Exact form and even surface are of far greater importance than is usually supposed to prevent friction and facilitate the flow of water. The tiles should be straight, even, smooth and hard burnt. The latter point, and the importance of having them made of good material can not be too strongly urged, because farmers are liable to be tempted to buy tiles on account of their low price, which prove a ruinous investment, crumbling and falling to pieces after a little time, and rendering the whole outlay useless.

I have witnessed so much vexation and annoyance from this cause that I can hardly find words to express my sense of the importance of making sure that only the best of clay is used and that the tiles are thoroughly burnt.

Drains are liable to fail from other causes.

Unless the outlet is carefully guarded, it is always in danger of injury from the treading of cattle and the pranks of boys; and on this account the outlets should be limited to the smallest possible number, and in every case should

be protected by a strong and durable inclosure of plank or stone, and a net-work of wire, to prevent the entrance of mice, moles, frogs, snakes and other vermin, which are sure to seek a harbor in them if left open.

The general topography and character of the soil of the prairies is so much alike, that for the greater portion of the farms in Illinois the rules for drainage are identical. Almost every farm is intersected more or less by low, wet tracts, known as sloughs, the intervening uplands being generally only gentle elevations, and rarely obtaining the dignity of hills. The sub-soil is generally clay, which is not unfrequently compressed into “ hard-pan," which is nearly impervious to water, but speedily becomes ameliorated by drainage, which necessarily causes alternate distention and shrinkage, and after a time works a complete change in its character. The sloughs, except during the heats of Summer, are impassable beds of mire, and are incapable of cultivation; but when drained, become at once the richest portion of the farm.

It is in the sloughs, of course, that the main drains must be laid, beginning at the outlet, or lowest point, and working upward, preserving always the longest possible stretches of straight lines, and making angles, or curves, only where it is absolutely necessary.

And it is of the utmost importance that these mains should, from the outset, be large enough to carry all the water that may be brought to them by side drains or by future extension.

Comparatively few farmers have yet extended their lines of tiles beyond the sloughs and wet grounds which demand immediate attention. They follow the course of the slough from the outlet to the head, or to the highest point within their own bounds, laying a four, six or eightinch tile for a main, and then connecting any outlying pools or wet places with it by a lateral or smaller size. The day is not distant, however, when the beneficial effect of drainage of uplands will be as universally acknowledged as that of the sloughs has already become.

The effect of drains in ameliorating the soil and preserving an equal degree of moisture, by means of the ventilation they afford, is but imperfectly comprehended by the mass of farmers, who think only of the necessity of removing standing water. They think it unnecessary to provide artificial means for removing the water when it is not seen to stand upon the surface; but in reality, it (in the great majority of cases) is held in the soil to such an extent as to be greatly injurious to the growing crops. If drain tile are laid at intervals of forty or fifty feet, the effect will be that the water from heavy rains will speedily pass off, and the soil, instead of remaining soggy and dead, will become friable and easy to cultivate; and as the water runs off, its place is supplied by air, which keeps it light and porous, and in times of drought imparts to it the moisture with which, even in the driest times, it is laden, and thus prevents it ever becoming baked in clods, as clay land is sure to do if undrained. The most obstinate clays are so affected by drainage that they crack and crumble, and become annually more loose and friable.

The distance at which drains should be laid from each other depends greatly upon the nature of the soil. In a porous soil, the deeper the drain is laid the farther it will draw; but clay soils cannot be thoroughly drained unless the drains are within twenty or thirty feet of each other, however deep they may be laid; and in any case, the further the water has to pass through soil to reach the drain, the longer it will be in doing it.

Probably few farms in Illinois would now pay for laying drains on the uplands at less distances than one hundred feet: yet I venture the prediction that no man who tries the experiment of laying them at that distance, in the ordinary soil of the prairies, will rest satisfied till he has introduced another midway between every two of those that were first laid.

In regard to the depth of drains, three feet is the least that should ever be admitted, and no man who has tried three and a half or four feet will ever stop at less without a feeling of self-reproach. But in some cases, the depth must necessarily be governed by the amount of fall. The first point to ascertain is the lowest point at which an outlet can be secured without risk of back-water by the rising of the stream or pond into which it empties; for it is obvious that the grade of all the drains must be dependent on this, and the folly of attempting to arrange any portion till this is established is plain.

A fall of three inches in one hundred feet, or half an inch to a rod, will suffice for perfect drainage; but in all cases of slight fall, it is of vital importance that the drains be straight and

SIZE OF PIPE.

smooth.

It is desirable to preserve as even a grade as possible, and it is of essential importance that no hollows should ever occur where the water would stand if not pushed on by that which follows; for in every such instance it will flow out of the joints instead of in, and will speedily become choked by silt, which is sure to be deposited in such places. The mains should be from three to six inches lower than the laterals, so that the latter may never have the water set back by standing water in the main.

All writers agree that it is best to have as few outlets as possible. "Every where else the work is protected by the earth above it, but at the outlet it is exposed to the action of frost, the treading of cattle, the mischiefs of boys, and the entry of reptiles, as well as the accumulation of deposits brought down by the drains themselves." Iron pipes set in masonry, with swing gates. are the proper finish for important outlets, and it is obviously desirable that they should be as few in number as possible.

The following table may be found convenient for reference, by those who are considering the subject of drainage. It shows the number of gallons which pipes of different size will deliver per minute, according to the rate of fall:

No tiles have been used long enough in the United States to test the question of how long they will last; and in England, the only result that has been reached is, that if properly made and of the best material, and properly laid, they constitute a permanent improvement. It is important, however, that the farmers should fully appreciate the fact that the tiles should be made of the best potters' clay, unmixed with any inferior material, and thoroughly baked. "The value of tiles," says Klippart, "depends upon the quality of the clay and the perfection of the burning;" and he relates a case in France, where drain tiles made from potters' clay were found in a good state of preservation, after being laid 340 years. Tiles which are manufactured of inferior clay, or common clay mixed with a portion of better quality-which is not an uncommon practice with some manufacturers-are not only less durable and more likely to crumble, but, owing to the roughness of the interior surface, are much more liable to become clogged than those made of potters' clay.

The almost inexhaustible supply of the very best quality of clay at Whitehall, in this State, has led to the establishment there of numerous and very extensive manufactories of stoneware, roofing and drain tiles, fire brick, etc., situated immediately on the line of the Chicago & Alton Railroad, and thus rendered easily accessible from all parts of the State. There are also extensive manufactories at Joliet and elsewhere. Demand will create increased supply, and competition will tend to improvement on the part of honest manufacturers, and also to the multiplication of shams on the part of those who would undersell them. With proper exercise of judgment it is not difficult for the farmer to distinguish between them. It should always be borne in mind that men who have attained a high reputation for the excellence of their manufactures have a great deal more at risk from deterioration than the mere capital invested in their machinery.

12 in. fall per 100 feet.

18 in. fall per
100 feet.

2 feet fall per
100 feet.

3 feet fall per

100 feet.

1