with the nations of Asia more intimate and is calculated to increase her influence in that part of the world. An academy of oriental languages has recently been established, now bearing the name of its first president, lately deceased, Privy Counselor Lazaref. In 1871, 20,000 roubles ($16,000) were appropriated for it. There are eight professorships, viz, of Armenian literature, of Arabic, Persian, Georgian, Turkish, Tartar, history of the eastern nations, and oriental calligraphy. The professors and students enjoy the same privileges as the professors and students of the universities. The recent expedition to Khiva has again shown how useful it is in war to know the language of the enemy. Two Russian officers, thoroughly conversant with the language of Khiva, repeated the bold enterprise of the Hungarian scientist and author, Vambéry, and visited Khiva in disguise, on their return furnishing the Russian commander with exact plans of all the canals and fortifications.

SECONDARY EDUCATION.

Secondary education in Russia is organized almost like that of Germany, especially since the promulgation of the law of 1871, which regulates the studies in the gymnasia, and that of 1872 regarding the realschools. The gymnasium's course now embraces Greek, Latin, German, and French, besides the scientific branches. The Russian real-schools are very excellent institutions and every way suited to the wants of Russia. Without neglecting general studies like history, they devote nearly all their efforts to mathematics, drawing, chemistry, modern languages, and all those studies which tend to aid industrial activity. They enable young men to acquire a very complete and very superior education without troubling them with the study of the ancient classics, (humanitarian studies,) which frequently drive them into a career leading to nothing. Thus they diminish the number of those mistaken lives, or, to use a common expression, those "dry fruits," which are the plague of families and of society. Holland has likewise recently organized similar schools (Hoogburgerscholen) in all the more important towns. The proof that these schools in Russia really meet an urgent want is seen in the fact that as soon as the ministry had promulgated the law more than forty provincial assemblies and municipalities applied to the ministry to have such real-schools established. Twenty-four at once furnished a building, an endowment, and guaranteed an annual appropriation. The endowments offered during the single year 1872 amounted to 280,000 roubles, ($224,000,) not counting twelve buildings, some of which were of considerable value.

The city of Borissoglebsk, in the province of Tambof, offers a building valued at $30,000; Kief one at $18,000. The city of Rostof, on the river Don, gives annually more than $20,000, a sum sufficient to cover all the expenses of a six-class real-school. Sarapoul annually appropriates $10,000; Krementchoug, $12,000; Rossieni, $8,000; Krasnooufimsk, in the province of Perm, a building valued at $12,000 for a real-school,

four classes of which are intended specially to meet the wants of that locality in mining and metallurgy, with agricultural instruction in the fifth and sixth classes and applied mechanics in the select class. These numerous demands, accompanied by such generous offers even from the most distant provinces of the empire, are admirable manifestations of the spirit of progress which is awakening everywhere; they prove that the local authorities are fully alive to the fact that only by the diffusion of scientific knowledge can the natural resources of a country be developed. The funds placed at the disposal of the ministry by the government are, we are sorry to say, as yet entirely insufficient, and most of the above-mentioned requests, so worthy of the strongest encouragement, have consequently been laid over for the present. At the end of the year 1872 there were not more than 27 real-schools, not, however, including those of the scholastic districts of Dorpat and the Caucasus.

On the 1st of January, 1872, there were in Russia 126 gymnasia and 32 progymnasia, with 42,751 scholars, 3,720 more than in 1871. The number of those presenting themselves for the August admission examinations was 11,068; 2,239 (i. e., 20 per cent.) were unable to pass these examinations, which are extremely rigorous, and in spite of this 44 of the 127 gymnasia had to refuse the admission of 1,048 youths who had passed the examination, merely because there was no room. This is another proof of the eagerness of the people to make the best use of the means of education offered them. What a strange contrast; in other countries the government makes efforts to stir up the local authorities and the private citizens in the cause of education, while in Russia private individuals, city- and provincial authorities outstrip the government in their efforts. It is the most sacred duty of the government to encourage this work of regeneration. During the year 1871 the gymnasia and progymnasia cost 4,467,644 roubles, ($3,574,115,) of which sum the government paid 3,215,889 roubles, ($2,572,711,) or about 72 per cent.; the remainder has been provided by the municipal authorities, the provincial assemblies, private individuals, and by the interest derived from school-funds. It is a curious and significant fact that Russia every year appoints a number of Austrian Slavonians as teachers in her secondary schools, 60 in 1870 and 60 in 1871. If this continues it cannot fail to exercise an important political influence in the future.

EFFORTS TO RUSSIANIZE POLAND AND THE BALTIC PROVINCES.

The official report also speaks of the persevering efforts to russianize Poland and the Baltic provinces. In 1871 there was in Poland only one gymnasium where instruction was not imparted in Russian, and this one happened to be originally a German school. The report says that, in the latter half of 1871, this gymnasium has been placed under the municipal authorities as a German one. The Polish language is thus entirely banished from the secondary schools, and the examinations in

the Russian language for admission to the gymnasia are particularly severe. The report says, "that in consequence of these measures parents have their children better instructed in Russian, and the Russian language is studied much more generally than formerly." In the Baltic (German-speaking) provinces-all comprised in the scholastic district of Dorpat-the authorities have gone to work with more precaution. Of the eleven gymnasia in this district there were ten where not only was Russian not the language of instruction, but where the study of Russian left much to be desired. Most families prefer German, which is their mother-tongue and which forms the connecting-link with western civilization. The teachers of Russian are either Germans, who are but very imperfectly acquainted with the language they are to teach, or Russians who have not studied philology. To remedy this defect, which the Russian government considers very deplorable, six free places have been established in the historico-philological institute to educate teachers of Russian for the gymnasia in the district of Dorpat. In Riga a new gymnasium, the Alexander Gymnasium, has been opened, where all branches of study are taught in Russian; and a second gymnasium on the same plan, also to be called Alexander Gymnasium, is shortly to be established in Reval. Both these gymnasia have been richly endowed by the government. It is but natural that the Russian government should endeavor to spread the national language in the provinces inhabited by a foreign population. France has done the same in Alsace and French Flanders and Prussia in the duchy of Posen, but everything which looks like a persecution of the very natural love of a people for their mother-tongue should be avoided. Compulsory measures are apt to awaken a spirit of resistance and make the process of assimilation exceedingly difficult.

EDUCATION OF WOMEN.

There is one branch of education in which Russia does more than many a western country, viz, the education of the daughters of the wealthy classes. With us (in Belgium) lyceums and colleges are opened for young men, but the girls receive their instruction in the convents. The result of this is frequently a very serious difference between husband and wife, the former being thoroughly imbued with modern, liberal ideas, the latter blindly subject to ultramontane influences. In Russia the government, the provincial and municipal authorities, have established gymnasia and progymnasia for young ladies, where a very high standard of education is aimed at, and in most cases successfully, to judge from the knowledge and general superiority of Russian ladies of the higher class who have been educated in these schools. At Moscow there is one school, the Fisher Gymnasium, where the course of studies is exactly the same as in a gymnasium for boys. A professor of the Moscow University has established higher courses of study for ladies, thus enabling them to acquire a university-education; this is carrying

out M. Duruy's idea, who would have succeeded in France had it not been for the desperate opposition of the bishops. In Russia, as in the United States, ladies have facilities for acquiring a high degree of historical, scientific, or philologic knowledge, without running the risk of being excommunicated. The government has increased the annual appropriation for the higher schools for young ladies, in 1873, from 50,000 roubles ($40,000) to 100,000 roubles, ($80,000,) and in 1874 to 150,000 roubles, ($120,000.) At the end of 1871 there were 186 secondary schools for females, with 23,404 scholars, supported at an annual expense of $500,000. The total number of schools of all grades, in January, 1872, was 1,081, with 38,430 scholars, viz, 16,641 boys and 21,789 girls; thus, strange to say, more girls than boys. Nearly all the private schools are at St. Petersburg and at Moscow; 835 of them were primary schools.

THE RUSSIAN UNIVERSITIES.

Russia has eight universities, organized on the German plan. These are: St. Petersburg, Moscow, Charkof, Kasan, Kief, Odessa, Dorpat, and Warsaw. The total number of professors was 512 and that of the students 6,779, of whom 3,247, or almost one-half, or 47 per cent., studied law; medicine was studied by 1,922, or 27 per cent. The number of students studying at the public expense is very considerable; 1,430 are educated entirely free, 2,208 have only to pay half, and 1,732 receive occasional subsidies; thus 80 per cent. are not able to bear their own expenses. This is a curious fact, throwing a peculiar light on Russian society, showing that the wealthier classes do not send their sons to the universities and that the middle classes only do this to a very limited degree. What a contrast to the English universities, attended almost exclusively by the sons of lords and millionaires! The power of the English aristocracy is based on this circumstance, that young noblemen generally study hard and are early inured to political work and made acquainted with political traditions. Russia has been much in want of good professors for the universities, and many professorships have in consequence had to remain vacant for a great length of time. To remedy this, the government has resolved to establish, under its own auspices, a nursery for young professors. An appropriation of $50,000 has been made for educating young men of talent, at home and abroad, with this special object. Another excellent measure in which Russia is ahead of several western nations is this, that at her universities special scientific courses have been established on the German plan and have been liberally provided with buildings, apparatus, and scientific instruments Astronomical observatories have been established at Odessa and at Kief. In 1871 a building was finished specially devoted to chemistry, where students have the very best facilities for making chemical experiments, the necessity for which is more and more acknowledged. During the single year 1871 the government has increased the appropri ation for the universities by $105,000.

MUNIFICENCE OF PRIVATE INDIVIDUALS.

The Russian and the American governments have on all occasions given proof of the cordial relations existing between them. Private individuals in Russia seem also desirous of rivaling American citizens in their munificence in the cause of education. We give the following instances: M. Naryshkin has founded a normal school at Tambof, provided it with a large and handsome building, and endowed it with a sum of $370,000. The munificent gift of M. Matveïef has greatly increased the histological cabinet of the Moscow University; thanks to the liberality of the Countess Maussin-Pushkin, instruction has reached a much higher standard in the Lyceum of Negine; a legacy of M. Botkin, a citizen of Moscow, has enabled the university in that city to found an art-museum and to give a prize for works on national history; at Holdingen the nobility has founded a gymnasium; the normal school at Tver has been founded and is supported at the expense of M. Maximof, a citizen of that place. These examples are selected at random from the reports of only two years, 1871 and 1872, and there are very few countries which can equal this. There are patriotic people in all countries, but there are only few whose patriotism is so enlightened as to find out in which way they can benefit their country most.

COMPULSORY MILITARY SERVICE AND COMPULSORY EDUCATION.

The Russian government has recently passed a law making military service compulsory for all citizens of the empire. If it was not for the want of schools, education also would have been made compulsory. The government which imposes barracks on the population ought also to impose schools. It must, no doubt, be regretted that Europe is gradually being transformed into an armed camp, perhaps one day to become an immense battle-field, but this is a necessity to which a nation desirous of maintaining its independence must submit; only, if the state requires every citizen to carry arms for the defense of the country, its first duty is to give in exchange to every one the benefits of education. Count Tolstoï expresses his opinion on this subject in words which deserve to be quoted here: "It is an absolute necessity that there should be found everywhere primary schools, with competent teachers and a full supply of text-books and apparatus. One of the best means for obtaining this result would be the gradual introduction of a system of compulsory education. As the example of Prussia and the whole of Germany has shown, there is no doubt that this system is the most powerful means of diffusing education among all classes of society. Several of our provincial assemblies are discussing this question." Count Tolstoï then states that in most of the villages and even the cities there is not a sufficient number of schools. A commencement must therefore be made to establish schools; but in the two chief cities, Moscow and St. Petersburg, nothing prevents the introduction of