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and property. In 1789 there were at Paris six merchant companies, and 44 communities of arts and trades, and the number had been much greater before 1776. There were in the reign of Philippe le Bel 22 corporations of arts and trades at Beauvais, a town of the second rank.

As a type of the industrial communities may be mentioned the " drapiers drapants" (manufacturers of cloth); as a type of the merchant Guilds the "merciers" or mercers, sellers of everything, makers of nothing (vendeurs de tout, faiseurs de rien), according to the popular proverb; and as types of the transport companies the skin trade of Paris ("la Marchandise de peau de Paris"), the Mercantile Association of Rouen ("la Hanse de Rouen "), and the merchants frequenting the river Loire and its tributaries ("les marchands fré"quentant la riviére de Loire et fleuves descendant en ycelle"), &c. (v. Bibliography infra). The privileged Corporations have now entirely disappeared, and there is scarcely one remaining, the origin of which can be traced to the old régime. The notaries, brokers, and money changers (Agents de change) are entirely distinct, and their constitution, even before the revolution, was by no means analogous to that of the bodies in which your Commission is interested. They were official bodies, and not trade Guilds.

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II.—The privileges, immunities, and franchises of the corporations of arts and trades, and of the merchant Guilds could, as a general rule, be enjoyed only by those actually engaged in the trade, and having a part in its hierarchy, so that the right to the enjoyment of them was not hereditary; the son of a mercer or draper could not become mercer or draper and member of the corporation, unless, like his father, he had served his time as apprentice, journeyman, and freeman ("apprenti, campagnon, et maître "). The statutes, however, of most of the trades accorded to the sons, sons-in-law, and sometimes even the nephews of freemen, considerable advantages denied to those whose family did not belong to the Corporation. Among these advantages may be mentioned the reduction of the period of service as apprentice, as well as of the time required to be passed in the grade of journeyman (compagnon on valet), and of the expenses of admission to the freedom, casier conditions for the masterpiece and some others.

But the "Confréries," which (originally at all events) were of a purely religious character, must not be confounded with the trade Guilds, who were for the most wealthy men, and men whose affiliation to the brotherhood was at once an honour and an advantage to the association. More frequently artizans, no longer engaged in their calling, continued to be members of the brotherhood; but the two institutions were quite distinct, and it was, in strictness, possible to belong to a brotherhood without being a member of a trade Guild, and, consequently, without being subject to its rules or participating in its privileges.

So far, then, the resemblance to the ancient Corpora. tions of England, such as the Fishmongers, Goldsmiths, Mercers, &c., in their present condition, is very remote.

A closer analogy probably existed in the special circumstances called forth by the exigencies of the times in some of our old Corporations, that of the "GrandeBoucherie de Paris" in particular. By the end of the 15th century the free butchers ("maîtres bouchers "), proprietors of the stalls of the Grande-Boucherie, had, most of them, ceased to follow the trade, and were generally wealthy citizens, who let their stalls at a very high rent to single young men exercising the butchers' trade, but not constituting a Corporation. At a later date these tenant butchers ("bouchers locataires ") obtained statutes and formed themselves into a trade Corporation, but the old butchers, the freeholders ("bouchers proprietaires "), still continued to exist as an independent Corporation, calling themselves the butchers of the "Grande-Boucherie," although they no longer carried on the trade. This title, and the proprietary rights attached thereto were descended by patrimony from father to son, but females were excluded (v. Traité de la Police de Dalamare, vol. II.).

The functions of the porters at the corn market (" de la halle aux blé's "), and the unloaders and carriers of wine, were not for the most part discharged by the actual bearers of the title; they were office holders, regular salaried officials, like those in the judicial and financial departments. The system was entirely different to that of the of the Corporations, although originally the future officers of the "halles" and ports formed Corporations like the rest.

III. The Corporations still existing in France, which have nothing in common with the ancient com

munities of arts and trades, are rather bodies like the Chambers of Commerce, societies of acknowledged public utility, like the Geographical Society (la société de Géographie "), and the mutual aid societies, or societies of the nature of "Confreries," merely tolerated like the trades unions, &c. (compagnonnages d'ouv riers), or, finally, industrial and commercial societies, than Corporations in the old meaning of the word. These bodies, societies, &c., when they have been recognised by the State, as of public utility, or when they have been legally constituted "sociétés par actions" or other associations for commerce, industry, insurance, &c., become civil personages, and can on certain conditions hold land, houses, funds, or other property, and can administer charitable or other institutions such as schools, "magasins desauvetage," warehouses, docks, silk warehouses (conditions pour les soies), &c., but here again is a system totally distinct from that of the ancient Corporations, and in no way connected with them. See the exceptions men

tioned below.

IV. The only Corporations (the name again is not very exact) surviving in France, and taking their name from a trade body are

i. The porters of the ports, "halles," and markets, the organization of which, in certain towns, Marseilles, for instance, and Paris ("halle aux blés, halle aux beurres " and "halles," properly so called), recalls that of the Corporations of the Middle Ages, and evidently originated from the ancient Corporations of similar names which existed before the revolution.

These Corporations are still in possession of a monopoly confirmed by the police regulations. The postulant is admitted by the syndicate of the company, after giving proofs of his fitness. It is the syndicate also, in concert with the municipality, the chamber of com. merce (at Marseilles), and the prefectoral authority which fixes the tariffs and enforces the observance of the regulations. From these syndicates you would obtain information which would be more exact than any it would be in my power to furnish you with, and which would be possessed of a very lively interest, for they are almost the only relics of our ancient corporate organisations which have survived the revolution.

ii. The professional syndicates, some recognised like the bakers (decree of 19 vendémiaire year X), and the butchers (decree of 30 Sept. 1802), and exercising legal powers as arbitrators between masters and work. men, or employés, or even between the masters and the cattle dealers; the others, known as syndical chambers of masters or workmen, having no official existence, but practising professional arbitration in a purely benevolent manner, organising mutual aid societies, insurances, technical schools, and possessing very great weight in all economical questions, in consequence of the understanding which they establish between the employers of labour (chefs d'industrie), or the labourers, less often between the two classes on the questions of wages. hours of labour, &c.

The law recently discussed in the Chamber will give to the professional syndicates, until now merely tolerated, proper legal sanction. The report, with its appendices, of the discussion which is to be found in the "Journal Official," is a very interesting document, in spite of some errors which have crept in, thanks to the insufficiency of the historical and economic studies of some of our honourable representatives, whose silence would have been pardoned.

iii. The journeymen's societies (les sociétés de Compagnonnage), the origin of which takes us back to the Middle Ages, but which have never been authorised by the State. Their influence declines more and more, in proportion to the numerical increase of the working men's syndical chambers.

V.-The ancient Corporations had each its own place in official processions and ceremonies, whether municipal or even royal, as at the entrance of the Kings and Queens into Paris or Reims. It cannot be so at the present day with the journeymen's societies which have never been recognised, but keep the festivals of their patron Saints, which, however, are quite peculiar to the society,and have no official character, nor with the professional syndicates of more recent origin, which, until the final decision on the law, only exist by the tolerance of the administration. As for those Corporations which may still be considered privileged bodies, the porters of the "halle," for example, or the dischargers at the port of Marseilles, their presence at public or religious ceremonies is neither compulsory nor official. Processions, moreover, are of very rare occurrence except in the interior of the Church, and our municipal or even national rejoicings have no

longer the character they used formerly to have, and which in England they still preserve. Processions and pageants are no longer in fashion.

VI.-The Corporations, communities of arts and trades, associations and brotherhoods, were suppressed for the first time under Louis XVI. by the edict of Turgot of 9 February 1776.

Re-established by the State, with some important modifications, in the month of August 1776, the Corporations were finally abolished by the "Assemblée Constituante" on February 16, 1791.

Some of them had during the Middle Ages been very wealthy. Besides the common fund, increased by the admission fees, assessments, fines, and gifts or legacies, they owned property consisting chiefly of houses, which served as meeting places, and, so to speak, as the social head-quarters of the Corporation, in shops and in the chapels, where the " Confréries " met for public worship. In the 18th century, however, they fell into decay, and their debts, the liquidation of which, though begun in 1716, was not completed in 1789, absorbed the whole of their income, and when the sentence of suppression was pronounced upon them the State charged itself with their debts and their goods became national property.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Original documents which have been published. 1. Livre des Métiers d'Etienne Boileau, published by Lespinasse et Boumardot, Paris, 1879. 1 vol. 4to.

2. The same published hy Depping in the "Collection des documents inédits de l'Histoire de France." 1 vol. 4to, 1837. (See the Introduction.)

3. Administrative and legislative archives of Reims ("Collection des documents inédits. 1839-1852. 4to. 8 vols.

4. Recueil des Monuments inédits del'Histoire du Tiers Etat (the same collection). 4 vols. 4to. 1850-1870.

5. Documents relatifs à l'histoire des corporations d'arts et métiers du diocese du Mans, published by the Abbé Lochet. 12mo. 1860.

6. Recueil de documents pour servir à l'histoire des commerces et de l'industrie en Angoumois par Babinet de Ramogen. 8vo. 164 pp. Angoulême.

7. Registre des déliberations des marchands merciers de Paris. (1596–1696), published by St. Joanny.

8. Histoire generale de Paris. Les Armoires de Paris, 1874. 4to, published by M. Tisserand.

9. Forgeais Numismatique des Corporations Parisiennes. 8vo. 1874.

10. Ch. Desmaze, Les Métiers de Paris d'après les ordonnances du Châtelet. 1 vol. 8vo. 1873.

11. Delamare, Traite de la Police. 4 vols. fol. 17221738. (There is besides in the National Library an important collection of unpublished documents on the arts and trades collected by Delamare.

12. Merg et Guindon, Histoire des Actes et déliberations du corps et du conseil de la municipalité de Marseilles du Xme siècles à nos jours. Aix. 8 vols. in 8vo.

13. Cambier, Documents inédits pour servir àl 'histoire des communantés d'arts et métiers du Vermandois Caen. Brochure of 63 pp. 8vo.

14. Germani, Histoire du Commerce de Montpellier. vol. ii. Pièces justificatives. Statuts des Corporations. (8vo. 1861. Montpellier.)

15. L'Abbé Hananer, Etudes Economiques, 1878. 2 vols. 8vo. (A very important work.)

&c.

16. Documents inédits de l'histoire de France. Mélanges historiques. Vol. iv.

17. P. Clement, Lettres et instructions de Colbert. Vol. ii.

18. Ordonnances des rois de France. (Collection du Louvre. 22 vols. fol.) See the Index to each vol. and the Chronological Table.

19. Hambert, Ordonnances des rois de France. 28 vols. in 8vo. (for the period from Francis I. to the Revolution. See in the Index, Arts et métiers).

20. Procès verbaux de l'Assemblée Constituante, 1791.

21. Statistique de la France. 1861 to 1865 Industry. 1873. Industry, Consult the vols. of the new series since 1871.

Compilations.

The Ancient Corporations.

1. E. Levasseur, Histoire des Classes ouvrières en France depuis la conquête de Jules César jusqu'à la revolution. Paris. 2 vols. 8vo. 1859.

2. Leon Gautier, Histoire des corporations. 32mo. 1874.

3. Fagniez, Etudes sur l'industrie et la classe industrielle au XIIIe et au XIVe Siècles. Paris. 8vo. 1878.

4. P. L. and F. Séré, Le Livre d'ordes métiers. 8vo. 1849.

5. Monteil, Histoire des Français des divers Etats. 10 vols. 8vo. 1828.

6. Toussaint Gautier, Dictionnaire des Confréries et Corporations d'Arts et Métiers. 8vo. 1855. (Encyclopédie de Migne. Vol. L.)

7. P. Lacroix, Histoire de l'orfévrerie joaillerie en France et en Belgique. 8vo. 1850.

8. Bouillet, Histoire des Communautés d'arts et métiers d'Auvergne. 1857. 8vo.

9. Ovin-Lacroix, Histoire des anciennes Corporations d'arts et métiers et des Confréries religieuses de la capitale de la Normandie Rouen. 1850. 8vo.

10. Deville, Recueils de documents relatifis à la corporation des tapissiers de 1258 à 1875. 8vo.

11. Régis de la Colombiere, Feter patronales et usages des Corporations de Marseilles avant 1789. 8vo. 1804.

12. P. Toigneaux, Histoire anecdotique des Professions en France depuis le XIII. siècle. Les barbiersperruquiers. livraison. 1843.

13. Leroux de Lincy, Histoire de l'Hotel de ville de Paris. 4to.

14. Coutant, De la Corporation des drapiers-chaussetiers. 8vo. 1858.

15. de Ribbe, Les Corporations ouvrières de l'ancien regime en Provence. 1865. 8vo.

16. Mautellier, Histoire de la communauté des marchands frequentant la rivière du Loire, &c. 1869. 3 vols. 8vo. Orléans.

17. F. de la Vigne, Recherches historiques sur les costumes civilset militaires des Gildes Corporations, &c. 1847. 8vo.

18. F. de la Vigne, Moeurs et usages des Corporations de Belgique et du Nord de la France. 1857.

19. Tonqué, Recherches historiques sur les corporations des archers, arbalstriers, arque busiers, &c. 1852. 8vo.

20. G. Simon, Etude historique et morale sur le Compagnonnage. 1860. 8vo.

21. Encyclopédie Méthodique arts et métiers. 22. Guillaumin, Collection des Economistes XVIIIe siècle.

du

I am about to publish the 1st vol. of a Histoire du commerce français in which I touch incidentally on the history of a certain number of the commercial bodies of the Middle Ages.

History. Since 1789.

Chaptal, De l'industrie Française. 3 vols. 8vo. E. Levasseur, Les classes ouvrières en France depuis 1789. 2 vols. 8vo.

Dè Mettais, Les populations ouvrières et les industries de la France. 1860. 2 vols. 8vo.

De Godoffre, Des associations syndicales. 1872. 8vo. Gh. Palangié, Des associations syndicales. 1872. 8 vo Havard, Les syndicales professionels. 1874. 8 vo. Agricole Pesdiguier, Le livre du compagnonnage. Paris.

1841.

Le Play, Les ouvriers Européens. 8vo. 1855. Le Play, La Reforme sociale. 2 vols. 8vo. 1864. Dictionnaire de l'economie politique Guillaumin. 2 vols. 8vo.

See also the numerous articles published during the last 10 years in the "Journal des Economistes," the Economiste français, the Revue deux-Mondes, &c. H. PIGEONNEAU, Professeur à la Sorbonne.

THE GUILDS OF SPAIN.

Madrid, July 13, 1880. 1.-The craft guilds (corporaciones de artes) were founded in Spain after the Middle Ages, and have entirely disappeared.

2.-Each Corporation was ruled by its own byelaws, and as a general rule patrimony (herencia) had no place in their ordinances.

5.-There is no record of any part having been taken in public functions by these Corporations.

6.-The companies generally had no property of their own, and those rightly styled craft guilds (artisticos) were absorbed by the Academy of San Fernando and others in the last century. The trade

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There is scarcely any ground for an answer to queries 3rd and 4th, as no trades-companies exist now-adays, except as voluntary associations for the purpose of aid and protection to members: they are private organisations, the statutes of which, or byelaws, are drawn up by the respective members. But in order that the association may obtain a legal status, its statutes must be submitted for sanction by decree. There is no law or general rule regarding the authority exercised by the governing body of any such "association," as they are termed in Portugal, corresponding more or less to the English "trades-unions." The directing members are elective, and their authority depends on the limits set down in the statutes, which often vary, but are always sanctioned provided they contain nothing contrary to the Constitution and general laws of the Realm. The property of such associations is merely in the nature of a fund based on contributions paid by the members, which being usually of small sums, the respective fund rarely attains any considerable amount; so that investment of surplus funds cannot, I imagine, even in exceptional cases, be considered as representing financial power. This may change in the course of time, as the bias of tradesunions increases and acquires greater development.

V.-These modern Corporations do participate in civic processions; indeed they constitute the principal feature of such demonstrations, which however are much less frequent than in Great Britain or the United States. They can also join in ecclesiastical processions (it is free for anyone to do so); but, as a body, this is now seldom, if ever, the case, at least in large towns. The spirit of the age is not religious, as we all know; and in Portugal it does not prevail to a less extent than in most other countries.

VI.-The 1st clause is met by the statement under my answer to query 1st. As to the 2nd clause, I may say that the extinct companies had funds of their own for various purposes, and perhaps real property to some extent, although their wealth was not to be compared with that of the London Companies. But I cannot give as yet any positive information in this respect.

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I send you herewith (Doc. No. 2) a copy of the Newspaper "A Officina," of August 2nd last, containing an interesting account of the "Casa dos vinte e quatro,' which was the name borne by the governing body of the extinct trades companies, composed of 24 Deputies. VICOMTE DE FIGANIÈRE.

Doc. No. 1.-DECREE.

Seeing that the institutions or offices of Judge and Representative of the people (Juiz e Procurador do Povo) the trades and the various associated " gremios" so many hindrances to National Industry, which to enable it to thrive demands freedom rather than display, protection rather than defence, seeing, I say, that these institutions are no longer in unity with the Constitutional Charter of the Monarchy, which is the basis on which all Legislative dispositions should be founded, I have decided to decree in the name of the Queen as follows:

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Art. ii.-The municipal authorities (as camaras municipaes) are hereby instructed to take such steps as, in their opinion, are best calculated to give effect to the order contained in Art. i. without inconveniencing the public, and if such measures shall exceed their powers let them consult me, that I may give the matters the consideration which they deserve. Art. iii.All laws to the contrary are hereby revoked.

Executed by the Minister and Secretary of State. D. PEDRO, DUKE OF BRAGANÇA, BENTO PEREIRA DA CARMA.

Palace of Ramachaõ,

May 7, 1834.

Doc. No. 2 (Extract from "A Officina").-THE HOUSE OF THE TWENTY-FOUR.

Free industry did not exist under the old regime. To be at liberty to follow a trade it was necessary to pass an examination and obtain a certificate.

Nearly all the trades were organised as societies (embandeirados). Under one flag and with one patron Saint (com a invocaçao de um santo) were united several trades. Each band chose one or more representatives, amounting in all to 24, who were elected annually and forming together the Corporation known as "The house of the 24" (casa dos vinte e quatro) they chose from amongst themselves the Judge of the people (o Juiz do povo*), their notary (escrivao), and the trades (os mesteres), which in Lisbon were four in number. These last formed part of the Council and assisted at its deliberations, though their vote was not of equal weight with that of the members of the Municipality (vereadores). The following is a curious piece of information respecting the organisation of the trades (officios) in the city of Lisbon in the year 1830.

LIST of the freemen of the trades (mestres dos officios) of the city of Lisbon who elect the "casa dos vinte e quatro."

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List of the trades represented in the casa dos vinte e quatro." Class i.-Barbers (barbeiros de barbear), sword cutlers (barbeiros de quarnece espadas), farriers (ferraors), gold beaters (bate folhas), blacksmiths (ferreiros), coppersmiths (fundidores de cobre), gilders (douradores), locksmiths (serralheiros), cutlers (cutileires), gunsmiths (espingardeiros) Class ii.-Booksellers (livreiros), glovers (luveiros), silk knitters (serigueiros de agulha), hatband makers (serigueiros de chapeus) bead makers (conteiros), comb makers (pentceiros), saddlers (albardeiros), brass founders (latoeiros de fundiçãe.

Class iii.-Shoemakers (sapateiros), tanners (curtidores), curriers (surradores), wine skin makers (odreiros).

Class iv.-Workers in leather (correeiros), saddlers (selleiros), bit makers (freeiros).

Class v.-Cabinet makers (carpinteiros de moveis), wood engravers (entalhadores), gunstock makers (coronheiros).

An official appointed to protect the rights of the people from the encroachments of the Government.

+ Independent trades (officios independentes), Coopers (tanceiros), Wax-chandlers (cereeiros), Goldsmiths (ourives de ouro), Silversmiths and Engravers fourives de prata e laurantes), Lapidaries (lapidadores), Makers of hempen rones (cordoiaos de linho), Makers of ropes from "piassa" (a black rush brought from the Brazils) and esparto (cordoeiros d'esparto e de piassa), Mat makers (esparteiros), and Hatters sombreiros).

Class vi.-Pastry cooks (pasteleiros), workers in white metal (latoeiros de folha branca), workers in yellow metals (latoeiros de folha amarella), oven keepers (torneiros, those who bake other people's bread, &c.)

Class vii.-Masons and stonecutters (pedreiros e canteiros), carpenters (carpinteiros), brick-makers (ladrilheiros), violin makers (violeiros).

Class viii.-Curriers (surradores), dyers (tintureiros), weavers (tecelões), mat sellers (esteireiros), glaziers (vidraceiros).

Class ix.-Confectioners (confeiteiros), coach harness makers (carpinteiros de jogos de carragens), coach makers (carpinteiros de caixa de carruagens), fishmongers (peixeleiros).

Class x.-Tailors (alfaiater), ready made clothes sellers (algibébes), sheath makers (bainheiros). Class xi.-Potters (oleiros), chocolate sellers (chocolateiros).

JOAQUIM MARTINS DE CARVALHO.

THE GUILDS OF ITALY.

Rome, August 29, 1883.

The craft Guilds (Corpi d' arte) in Italy are of great antiquity, and in addition to their original purpose, more especially during the mediaval period, they acquired a purely political character. The system of trade associations was in substance nothing more than a distribution of the people made for political reasons at Rome, for instance, to remove the diversities of origin existing among the citizens, and in the Middle Ages to counterbalance the power of the nobles. In course of time, however, owing to reforms effected by the State, this became less necessary, and the associations (sodaligi) in question devoted themselves to the regulation of their crafts, and the performance of friendly offices to their members.

Their constitution was the natural outcome of the feudal times in which they attained their greatest influence. Each craft had its own statutes, byelaws, and ordinances (statuti, capitoli, leggi) or as it was called at Venice Mariegola" (chief law), which were formed with more or less freedem according to the times by vote of the members themselves, and were from time to time reconsidered.

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At the court or assembly (capitolo ossia assemblea) they held consultations and elected officers to whom with their chief called at Venice the Steward (gastaldo), at Milan the Abbot, and at Florence the Prior was granted exemption from the statutes and ordinances.

In addition to the proportion due to the State the members were required to pay a contribution to the craft which was apportioned by officials appointed for the purpose and known at Venice as "i tansadori" (the taxers). All disputes were decided by special magistrates.

Originally the Italian crafts could not be called exclusive in the sense that entrance was prohibited, but only in the sense that they could not be entered except on fulfilment of the prescribed conditions.

The right of entry into a Corporation was not hereditary, but was conferred on any one actually following the trade, provided that he was of good reputation and character.

Sometimes the craftsmen were divided into apprentices and masters, with occasionally the intermediate grade of journeyman. Before passing from one grade to another, a period of service at least was necessary, and more commonly the production of a masterpiece was also required.

The superintendents (soprastanti) made from time to time visits of inspection for the purpose of ascertaining if any fraud was being practised. The hours of labour were for the most part determined by the Statutes, and a bell called in Venice "the journeyman" (marangona) announced the beginning and the end of the day's work. On a festival day all labour was forbidden.

The craft Guilds formed in most cases religious brotherhoods who chose for themselves a patron saint whose effigy they bore on their standard.

A great change was brought about in the Italian Corporations by the assumption by the crafts themselves of a different character, as when they began to undertake industrial enterprises. The old Corporations dealt not so much with workmen as opposed to masters, as with workmen undergoing a course of

training preparatory to becoming masters, but with the need for any considerable mediation, this prospect diminishes, and masters and men must of necessity remain distinct.

In those industries which were first constituted on a large scale, the wool trade in particular, there existed at the time when the Corporations flourished this separation, which resulted in the famous risings of the woolmen (ciompi) at Florence, and of the silkmen (straccioni) at Lucca.

As soon as a craft had at its disposal not only labour, but also considerable sums of money, the desire at once became prevalent among the members of making a profit out of the expenditure incurred in the administration, whereas in earlier times they had sought only mutual assistance, the credit of the trade.

There ensued in consequence those results which always overtake an institution when it comes under conditions differing from those in which it had its origin, and the inconveniences attendant on the long decadence of the Guilds suggested their abolition, in order to make way for freedom of labour in those industries which they had so long protected.

The Italian economists of the XVIII. century, and particularly Mengotti, Beccaria, Filangen, Verri, and Vasco frankly pronounced themselves opposed to the regime of Corporations of Arts and Misteries, which were finally abolished in Piedmont in 1844, in Tuscany in 1847, in Naples in 1821, in Lombardo, Venetia, and Parma in 1813. But, although legally abolished, several of them still survived, especially at the ports and frontier towns (dogane); at Genoa for instance, there survived the Corporation of the “ cadrai” or bumboat men (vivandieri), in whom was vested the right of selling eatables to the ships in the port; of the linguists with that of the interpreters and purveyors to foreign ships; of the porters of the bridges and steps; the "calafati" (calkers) of the canal, whose duty it was to remove and stow in the warehouses all merchandise. The packers (imballatori), barrel porters (barillari), and box carriers (cassari) who were employed to arrange the boxes and packing them in heaps, and to take the patterns and samples: finally, the porters at houses or free ports.

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In 1864 there were still 5,000 people in Italy, whose names were on the register as members of Corporations.

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At Novara the Corporation of the shoemakers (calzolai) still exists, and retains the right to take part in the administration of the hospital of San Guiliano, the wants of which during several centuries it has, out of its own funds, liberally supplied.

In several Italian provinces the Corporations of Arts and Misteries have never existed; they flourished principally at Florence, Milan, and Venice, and Genoa, where in the Middle Ages industry and commerce were developed to a very remarkable extent.

They very rarely held real property, and when they were suppressed their estate devolved on those charitable institutions which in Italy are called pious works (le opere pie).

Many of them were transformed into "friendly societies " (societa di mutuo soccorso), still preserving however some of their ancient usages, such as the kindly one of attending the funeral of deceased members or that of observing the feast of their patron Saint.

In treating of an institution which has long since disappeared, but which nevertheless has left traces of its existence on other institutions of an altogether different nature, it is by no means easy to recognise these traces and decide whether the trades unions" (societa operaie) which have sprung up, and in which are some analogies to the old Corporations, are to be considered as entirely new bodies or as descendants and successors of the old Misteries.

As has already been said the Italian Corporations of Arts and Misteries cannot be said to have been inaccessible, for every one who followed a craft might participate in the privileges of the Guild provided he was of good reputation, paid an entrance fee, and underwent a course of training in the mysteries of his craft (si sottomettesse al tirocinio del suo mestiere).

Foreigners however were usually only admitted on payment of a somewhat larger fee than that required of the native workmen.

It was customary for the sons or the eldest son to follow the craft of the father, but to be received into the Corporation of which the father had been a member it was necessary to observe all the usual formalities.

There still remain in Italy some examples of the old mysteries (maestrange) which the authorities have not been compelled by the greed of the members to suppress. The Mantuan corporation of the "brentatori" with the Novareze corporation of the "Calzolai" have already been mentioned, and the following account of the Artine Corporation of the " Cappellai" in the words of the Prefect of Strezzo may not be uninteresting.

The Corporation of the hatters (cappellai) is one of great antiquity and is still in existence.

The right of membership is not hereditary but in consequence on the practising of the trade and the payment of the fine fixed by special ordinance.

It does not so far as I have been able to learn possess any real property, it administers no charitable works (opere di beneficenza), exercises no control whatever over the craft or trade whose name it bears, and takes no part in processions or festivals whether civil or ecclesiastical.

In reference to the Corporation of the "brentatori " at Cuneo (Piedmont) which has recently been suppressed the subjoined information has been received from the Syndic of that commune.

The last genuine Corporation (which lasted until within the last few years) was that of the "brentatori" or measurers of wine. Their common property consisted of carts, wine, presses, vats, and all the utensils which are required for the making of wine.

They had or rather claimed for themselves the sole right of measuring wine, and enjoyed a species of monopoly on the market, which they exercised by means

of brokers.

The profits were divided amongst the members, and the aged and impotent received their share.

In the wine season and whenever occasion required they engaged day labourers, the oldest of whom were preferred when a post as measurer (brentatori) became vacant. The post was not hereditary as a matter of right, but as a matter of fact it did commonly descend from father to son.

The scale of remuneration for their services was fixed by the municipality, and the members of the Guild were required to afford gratuitous assistance in all cases of fire.

The Company is now abolished owing to the abuses which resulted from their monopoly, the right of measurement of wine and the communal contract. Many of the old "brentatori," however, have continued their trade under the contractor, and have formed an association which has already obtained the contract twice, in the name, however, of one of the members.

On the Corporation of the Shoemakers (Calzolai), at Sassoferrato (Province of Ancona), reports as follows:

That it has existed from time immemorial, and is still in existence. That by ancient custom on attaining their 21st year acquire the right of entrance to the said society (congregazione).

That it owns real property held in trust for charitable purposes, and for the sustenance of craftsmen who are sick and unable to work. That to a special commission composed of five members, a chairman and four assistants (un presidente e quattro consiglieri), is left the control of the craft.

And that this Corporation is in the habit of following deceased members to the cemetery.

A few Guilds possessed real property, and when they were suppressed their goods were allocated to charitable purposes (opere pie), or devolved on the trades unions or benefit societies (societa operaie di mutuo soccorso).

The Guilds of the Commune of Imola.

Imola, July 10, 1883.

I. It is certain that craft Guilds (le Societa o Collegi delle Arti) are institutions of great antiquity which have existed or do exist in all civilised nations. Imola, a Roman colony (Forum lornelii), like the mother country, Rome, was not without them. It is clear from documentary evidence that in the 13th century there existed these so called "Schools "* (scole), which were organised corporations, with their own chiefs and officials; sometimes of a religious, and sometimes of a civil nature, or at other times partaking of both characters. A popular form of government having

cf. The returns of the Grocers' Company "to be a seminary of good Citizens," Rep. Vol. ii., p. Adam Smith also (Wealth of Nations) generally calls the Companies" Colleges or Universities."

always prevailed in Imola, these societies began to take part in public affairs in 1266, and when the Guelf party had the upper hand in the City and Commune, the crafts or corporations, societies, and colleges of arts and misteries became a political body, and obtained the supreme power, to the exclusion of the nobles or aristocracy.

The book or register (entitled "Almavirtus") of these societies is still preserved in the communal archives; it contains a list of the Corporations and their members to the mumber of 1,626. The societies were,

1. Indicum, Plus sicorum, Notariorum (the police spies, tax gatherers, and notaries).

2. Beccariorum (butchers); or Pizzicagnoli (pork butchers).

3. Bubulcorum or contadini (peasants).

4. Calzolariorum, shoemakers.

5. Magistrorum muri et lignaminis, masons and carpenters.

6. Capistrariorum, canepini, gargiolai, cordai (rop makers, &c.).

7. Mercatorum (mercers).

8. Pilipariorum or cappellai (hatters). 9. Fabrorum (smiths).

This register dates from the year 1272, at the time when Anselmo Milanese discharged the office of Vicar General in Imola for Lucchetta de Gattilosi, Podesta of Bologna and Imola.

No citizen could aspire to the Council, Magistracy, or any public office unless affiliated to one or other of the above-mentioned "colleges." In consequence of political changes, the corporations lost their political character, but continued to be societies recognised and favoured by the Government. It is true that by the Statutes of Imola reformed in 1834 they no longer have any share in the management of public affairs, but in these statutes there are special provisions affecting these societies which kept their ground down to the time of Julian II., and gained new strength and vigour when that Pontiff granted to the people of Imola a republican constitution under the supremacy of the Holy See, by which the communal authorities became a sort of vicariate of the Church for the administration of the city, commune, and district of Imola, which comprehended other smaller communes.

Every corporation had its own Statutes or ordinances (Statuto ossiano capitoli), which, however, in process. of time were gradually reformed and modified, correspondently with the modifications brought about in the constitutional laws, the manners and customs, and institutions.

The ordinances and any alterations which might be needed, could not take effect until they had been approved by the Communal Council, and ratified by the Pope in right of his supremacy, either by means of Bulls or decree of the Apostolic legates. The Guilds survived in Imola till towards the close of the last century.

The byelaws of all the Guilds were originally taken from ore model, which was in great part based on the communal Ordinances. Every corporation had its chief or master (capo)" il Massaro," a vice-master ("Sotto Massaro") or Syndic, and two assistants (Agguinti), who acted as the Syndic's Deputies. In early times they were called the servants (“ Ministrali"), and were really the officials of the Society. They were elected by ballot (colmetodo d'imborsagione) for one year; they swore to discharge their duties faithfully and diligently; the government and adminis tration of the society were in their hands, and they usually acted as mediators in the differences which arose between the members on matters relating to the practice of the trade. The "Massari" were required by the byelaws of some societies to give security.

They appointed one of the city notaries, who lent his services as secretary and chancellor of the society.

They also elected a paid beadle (un messo salariato), whose duty it was to carry out the orders of the master, to collect the fines and pecuniary penalties incurred by non-observance of the rules. Each society had its own standard. on which was depicted the patron Saint of the association. The standard was borne at the head of the Guild whenever it appeared in public, as on the festival of St. Cassian, the patron Saint of the city, on which occasion all the societies in a body marched in procession to the Cathedral to make offering of wax candles, or as when the Guild members attended the funeral of a deceased member.

They kept a register of the craft-premium (matricola) paid by each member, the "matricola" (a fee payable for permission to practise a certain trade)

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