In March 1881 another change was proposed. A Bill was laid before the Reichstag confirming the "Gewerbe Ordnung" so far that guilds were not to be made compulsory, yet allowing them expressly to extend their influence. Power was given to create industrial schools, make rules for advancing the industrial and technical instruction of masters and journeymen; establish a system of examinations for testing their capacity; form associations of workmen connected with each trade; create Tontines and sick and invalid funds, and appoint tribunals of arbitration. It was set forth that much of the old power of the guilds should be restored; power be given to determine the form and duration of apprenticeships, to hold masters to their duty of sending apprentices to technical schools, to regulate the time of apprenticeship, the registry of apprentices and the distribution of letters of apprenticeship, to appoint the authorities and forms to be established for settling claims and quarrels, to decide as to the admission, resignation, or exclusion of members, their rights and their contributions to the guild, to determine and impose fines, to alter the statutes, and dispose of the corporate receipts.

As to the latter point, it was required that statutes or alterations of the same should be submitted to the higher administrative authority for confirmation.

In respect of unpaid contributions and fines, the money was made recoverable at once through the usual channels of the law.

The decisions of the guild courts of arbitration were ordered to be final and without appeal. Persons entitled to be members of a guild were to be either employers or foremen in large works. Others might be honorary members only.

A strong part of the Bill was that which empowered guilds to settle disputes between masters and apprentices, when neither were members of the guild. Another strong clause was one imposing guild rules on apprentices of other than guild masters. Equally favourable to the guilds, further, was the right to superintend the examination of apprentices, even when they were under indenture to masters not members of a guild.

The heart of the Bill, however, was a clause enacting that no master who did not belong to a guild should

after a certain date be allowed to take apprentices at all. The concluding clause gave power for the formation of unions of guilds.

The Bill gave rise to a long and interesting debate. The only clause which the Reichstag refused to accept was that enacting that masters who did not belong to a guild should be prohibited from taking apprentices. On the 18th of July the Bill became law. It now remains to be seen whether guilds will or will not revive in Germany under this new impulse, seeing that they are not compulsory institutions, and that masters not belonging to them may still train apprentices. (Signed) J. A. CROWE, Commercial Attaché.

Berlin, July 7, 1882.

CIRCULAR.

The following questions were submitted to the foreign authorities:

1. There were, it is presumed, a number of craft guilds in during the Middle Ages. What has become of them? Do many of them survive?

2. Can you state whether the right of membership or the freedom, as it is called in English, deseended in from father to child by patrimony, or whether

it depended upon following the trade the name of which the guild bore? In England, owing to patrimony, the guilds must always have contained many non-craftsmen. 3. Can you state whether the present guild of are large owners of lands or houses or other property, and whether they are trustees of many charities, or of any charities, and of what kind?

4. Can you say whether the present guilds of still exercise control of any and what description over the trades the names of which they bear?

5. Can you say whether the present guilds of take part in any municipal or ecclesiastical processions or pageants?

6. If the guilds of have been suppressed, when did this occur, had they much property and of what kind, and how was it dealt with?

(This refers to the following papers. In the blank space the name of the county in question was inserted.)

GUILDS OF GERMANY AND

AUSTRIA.

VII. Zollergasse 17,

Vienna, Jan. 30, 1884. I.—The “Zünfte" and "Innunger" in Germany and Austria were abolished in 1859-60, having long been in a precarious condition and their original objects more or less impracticable.

Austria led the way in 1859, followed during 1860-61 by the other German States, the North German Confederation in 1869 issued a code of laws for the purpose of founding liberty of trade, and a few years later trade liberty passed into the legal system of the German Kingdom.

soon

A re-action was caused in Germany and Austria by the fact that from the removal of the old abuse new evils sprang, for, owing to the establishment of liberty of trade, a large number of young men, to enable themselves to marry, established themselves in business, with neither the requisite technical knowledge nor a sufficiency of capital, and consequently were obliged to go into liquidation, the result being that their families fell into want. The adherents of the old system and their leaders made use of the stagnation of trade caused by the crisis of 1873 as a ground for demanding a revision of the statutes relating to trade. In consequence of this, in the year 1881, a change was made in the commercial laws of Germany, by which the system of the "Innungen" and masterpieces (Lehrlingsprufung) became again operative, though not compulsory. Owing to this change, by the spring of 1883, 450 Innungen were refounded and their statutes registered in the Courts. Of these statutes 216 were approved in May 1883. These Innungen consist exclusively of artizans and include no manufacturers.

In Austria, in the summer of 1883, a revision of the trade statutes was undertaken, and the Apprentices' Masterpiece (die Prufung der Lehrlinge) and association into "Innungen was thereby again made compulsory, but only in a small number of crafts, so that female labour, which by the law of 1859 had been made perfectly free, was not prejudicially affected to any great extent.

The old "Zünfte" and "Innungen" abolished in 1859-64 were not in general wealthy. The common property was either shared under the last master or with the other possessions handed over to the sick fund (Krankenkassen). Some companies became " manufacturing co-operative societies "-the 'Innung" of the Clothworkers in Breslau, for instance, which has erected a plant, the common property of all the members.

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The Clothworkers at Bielitz, in Schlesien, have not divided their property, and still possess a hall (Zunfthaus), and apply their revenues to corporate purposes. In this company the right to a share in the corporate property descends from father to son so long as the manufacture of cloth is continued in the family.

II.--The right of membership was not hereditary in Germany, but was acquired by fulfilling the necessary conditions which were the now disused apprentice test (Lehrlingsprufung), the three years "Wanderzeit," which is still in force, and the masterpiece (Meisterstück).

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In Germany and Austria the "Zünfte" had no property which did not belong to the trades concerned. The Zünfte" of Berne, in Switzerland, which appear to have a purely municipal (burgerlichen) character, bear a close analogy to those of England.

are

III. As already mentioned it is only in exceptional cases in Germany and Austria that " Innungen found owning real property. Many, however, have applied a share of their revenues to the poor-box and sick fund (Unterstutzungs und Krankenkassen).

IV. By the new law it was not exactly the Zünfte but the " 'Innungen" that were restored, and they exercise a trade control over their members, so far as the (in Germany optional, in Austria obligatory,) test system (Prufungswesen) has been re-established.

V. In festival processions, of which during the last 20 years there have been in Germany and Austria many splendid examples, the artizans as members of the Corporation have always taken a part even at a time when were non-existent.

the "Zünfte

VI.-As was observed in the answer to question 1, at the commencement of the year 1860 there was but little property left to the abolished "Zünfte," so that the acquirement of property in the above-mentioned (answer to question 1) manner rarely attracted attention.

MAX WIRTH.

THE GUILDS OF NORWAY. 25, Ullevoldsveien, Christiana, 17th July 1883. 1.-Craft-guilds were instituted in very early times in this as in other countries on the ground that in the towns by means of organisation the industries should be kept to themselves. The Members were required to be thoroughly trained in all manual skill and dexterity belonging to their trade. On the one side were exclusive privileges connected with the pursuit of their industry, and on the other all approach to an alliance with the other organised trades (bundne Næringer) was forbidden. No connexion, that is to say between commercial and industrial freedom, was permitted.

In the country industries were, as a rule, only free in the case of the most necessary crafts such as the tailors (Skrædere), the shoemakers (Skomagere), the blacksmiths (Grosmede), and carpenters (Tömmermænd). Certain other industries could be practised with the Royal sanction. Handicraftsmen might not send the fruits of their labour to the towns nor export it abroad. In the towns the manual industries were, as a rule, affiliated to a particular Guild (bestemte Laug) composed of Freemen (Mestere), Journeymen (Svende), and Apprentices (Læredrenge), and to pass from one grade to another it was necessary after a certain period of service in the subordinate position to produce a masterpiece" (Pröve).

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The Guilds (Laugene) first received settled rules and their legally defined privileges (bestemte Reglen og sine Rettigheder lovbestemte) after the establishment of the sovereign power.

The first Guild ordinances (Laugsartikler) are dated Nov. 4, 1682, and the privileges therein granted were fixed by order of the King.

The first endeavours to break these chains which early legislation had laid on manual labour were made in the year 1839. By a subsequent law of July 15, 1839, it was decreed that no new craft Guild (Haandværkslaug) might be established and that every Guild should be abolished when all the Masters or freemen admitted to the Guilds before 1840 (samtlige inden 1840 i Laugene optagne Mestere) were dead, or the survivors (tilbagevoerende) were agreed to dissolve the Guild (Lauget).

It appeared from a list that was made in 1841 that there were at that time in Norway in all 44 Guilds, viz. :--

The total number of freemen of the Guilds (Laugsmestere) amounts to 1,331.

During the gradual abolition of these Guilds in the merchant towns where they were established Guild restrictions (Laugstvangen) would necessarily exist, and in these crafts, the execution of a masterpiece was demanded of the journeymen and freemen (opretholdtes da fremdeles Svendepröven og Mesterpröven). In industries and market towns where no Guild existed, no journeyman's masterpiece was required, and, instead of the "Master's,' a certificate of his ability in the industry in question from two trustworthy men accepted.

was

In the country districts the trades were left untouched by the above-mentioned law of July 15, 1839, but it was provided that within a radius of 1 Norsk mile (7 English miles) from a market town no industry might be carried on in opposition to the townspeople. The importing of manufactures, moreover, into the towns was permitted with the exception of coopers' work and confectionery to the mines. Shipments from the towns remained as before prohibited.

By law of April 14, 1866, the above-named surviving limitations to the right to practise an industry are repealed as from 1868, and any man who has attained the age of 21 years, and fulfils the conditions respecting the freedom of a market town (Kjöbstadborgerskab), which are set out in full, can demand the town freedom (Borgerbrev) for industrial purposes, as this can now be combined with trade freedom, except the retail trade (that is, under 40 litres) in spirits (Brændevin). By law of April 28, 1874, the above-referred to radius round market towns was finally abolished as from 1876, and thus industrial enterprise (Haandværksdriften) is now free throughout the country. All masterpieces or tests of capability (enhver Prove eller Dygtighedsbevis) are abolished, and from the end of 1869 all Guilds are abolished likewise.

These two laws, however, had no effect on the regulations by which, in the mining towns, and in the vicinity of the silver mines the inhabitants were forbidden to have any connexion with the workers in silver and gold, the purpose of which prohibition is to put a stop to the stealing of silver from the mines, nor on the bakers' trade in the mines, which was still limited to a few privileged bakehouses. The real privilege, granted originally as a means of ensuring immunity from fire, the baking of fine bread-the baking of coarse is free, but such bread is but little used in the mines-was by the law of 1839 to cease with the death of the freemen, then members of the Guild, or of their widows (samtlige den Tid i Lauget værende Mestere eller disser Enker), provided that they took over the business on their husband's death, were dead or had left the Guild.

A law of June 15th, 1881, gives permission to three of the Municipal Council to abolish the journeyman's masterpiece. Craft masters are compelled to enter into a written contract to teach any apprentice they may take, which contract must not last more than five years, and to provide at the same time for his perfecting himself in the trade (Uddannelse i Faget), so that at the end of his apprenticeship (Læretiden) he can exhibit the abovenamed voluntary masterpiece or test work. Such a piece of test work may also be exhibited by any other

person who may not have been apprenticed, but has acquired in some other manner the requisite skill.

II. The rights of citizenship and trade never passed by inheritance. Town or Guild rights (Borger eller Laugsretten) could only be enjoyed by those who followed the trade, the name of which was borne by the Guild (Lauget). Nothing resembling the various Guilds in England in this respect, has ever existed in Norway.

Even the bakers' privileges (Bagerrettighederne) in the mining districts, which were limited to certain buildings, did not pass by descent. The buildings were inherited, but not the privileges, which consequently could only be enjoyed by the heir if he was a baker. In the event of a sale the oldest journeyman baker had and has still a right of pre-emption (Forkjöbsret) of the buildings at a valuation. So soon as the last of the mountain bakers living in 1839 and their widows are dead the trade will be free (vil denne Næring blive fri). III. No, not in Norway. Every Guild had no doubt its Guild chest (Laugskasse), but this held merely inconsiderable receipt and a small capital which was never broken into. The money received by the Guilds was applied towards the support of sick and needy .members (til Understöttelse for syge og trængende Medlemmer), but the Guild never acted as trustee (Laugene optraadte aldrig som Curator) of other people's charities. The insignia, plate, cash, and furniture owned by the Guilds has some of it, been given to the public museums and the remainder sold.

IV. The Guilds exercised no particular control over their members, but they permitted no encroachment on their rights.

V.-Voluntary associations of craftsmen (frivillige Foreninger af Haandværkere) even now appear in religious processions with banners, and the emblems of their craft displayed.

VI. See answers to questions 1 and 3.

DR. O. J. BROCK.

GUILDS OF HOLLAND.

Huize de Toll (Gelochand), July 13, 1883.

I. In former times there existed in the various towns of the United provinces (the Netherlands) Guilds, the administration of which was regulated by special ordinances, for each town had its own code of laws, resembling each other, however, in very many points. They were abolished throughout the country by Article 53 of the Constitution of 1798, which is to the following effect:" At the adoption of the Constitution all Guilds,

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66

Corporations, or Brotherhoods of trade, industries, or "manufactures were declared abolished. Any citizen, moreover, is at liberty to establish in the town, in "which he resides, any such manufacture or business, or any such honest trade as he may desire. The repre"sentative body provides for and assures to the "citizens the quiet and peaceable enjoyment of such "establishments." The right therefore to practise a certain trade is not dependent upon membership of a Guild, and in this sense it may be said that the Guilds no longer exist. The influence, too, formerly exercised by the Guilds in political matters has been taken from them entirely. After their suppression, however, in a few instances, the funds, which were not very large, were allowed to remain in their possession, and were administered for charitable purposes by a committee, under the inspection of the local authorities. The administration of these funds was regulated in accordance with a royal decree of July 26, 1820, No. 74. By Article 4 of this decree it was directed that the money should be employed for the support in the first place of necessitous ex-members (hulpbehoevende gewezen leden) of the former Guilds, and their widows and children, and in the next place of other indigent craftsmen (ambachtsgezelen).

II. The right of membership was not hereditary qua talis, but was dependent upon the actual practice of the craft or trade (verbanden aan de uitoefening van het handwerk of beroep).

The freedom of a town (burgerrecht) was also a condition precedent to admission to a Guild. The children born in lawful wedlock to a free citizen (burger) were from the moment of their birth free citizens likewise. "Burgerrecht," however, was obtainable in more ways than one, and he who had it not by birthright might petition the magistrate of the town to be pleased to grant him the freedom, when by act of favour certain rights (jura) were granted. Citizens thus created were called

"cooked burgers" (gekochte burgers). "Burgerrecht" can also be acquired by gift of the magistrate. It is worthy of note that it not unfrequently happened that persons holding the "burgerrecht," but following no fixed trade or profession, obtained admission into one or other of the Guilds that they might be thus enabled to exercise some political influence.

III.-The first part of this question must be answered in the negative; and in reply to the second part, there are some few charitable institutions under the management of the former Guilds, but the regulations differ in every town. There is one at Arnhem called Dortmond's widows' home (het Dortmondsche Weduwenhuis) founded in 1744 by Arent van Dortmond and Anneke van Gelders his wife, and managed in conformity with the directions contained in his will, by the two Commissioners of the sometime Guild of St. Joseph (the Carpenters' Guild).

IV. No sort of control. V.-No.

VI.-Already answered in reply to Question I. BARON SCHIMMELPENNINCK VAN DER OIJE.

Gravenhage, June 22, 1883. I. In the several provinces which now constitute the Kingdom of the Netherlands there were from a very early period Guilds and Corporations; these associations, however, were almost exclusively confined to the towns, more especially the large towns. In Amsterdam in particular the Guilds were subject to very minute and circumstantial ordinances framed by the municipal authorities. Under the old régime (den alouden Staatsvorm) the towns in the different provinces and departments were to a very considerable extent autonomous. Hence in every town the Guilds, like all other local interests, were administered under the immediate inspection of the municipality (der locale gemeente), and the only difference between the Guilds lay in the different regulations. It should be mentioned, however, that in the main the regulations bore a strong resemblance to each other.

This state of affairs, which took its rise far back in the Middle Ages (waarvan de oorsprong hoog in de middeleeuwen opklimt), so that a knowledge of the early history of the Guilds in this country can with difficulty be attained, continued until the end of the 18th or beginning of the 19th century.

The first interference with the system we have just described was caused by the revolution in 1795, which transformed the old Republic of the United Provinces into the one and indivisible Batavian Republic (een en ondeelbaar Bataafsche gemeenebest). The first public act of the Batavian Republic was passed in 1798, and in Art. 53 of the general principles (Algemeene Beginselen) it was ordained that:

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"At the adoption of the Constitution all Guilds, Corporations, or brotherhoods of trades, industries, or manufactures were declared abolished. Any citizen moreover is at liberty to establish in the town in which he resides any such manufacture or business or any such honest trade as he may desire."

This act was brought into operation by publication on the 5th October 1798, and a provisional commission was appointed in each municipality charged with the enforcement of its provisions. These commissioners were instructed to demand accounts and particulars relating to the funds of the Guilds and to take over the goods and effects which had belonged to the suppressed Corporations with respect to which they were to receive further instructions.

In consequence of the continuance of the revolution during the years 1798-1806 the liquidation was only partially carried out (slechtsgebrekkig geschied).

After the foundation, however, in 1806 of the Kingdom of Holland by King Louis Napoleon a law was passed in 1808 by which the old Corporations and Guilds were re-established throughout the Kingdom on a new basis. But owing to the incorporation of the Netherlands into the French Kingdom in 1810 this law never took effect. The French legal code was declared to be in force and the Guilds were thereby permanently abolished and after the restoration of independence in 1813 they were not re-introduced.

There still, however, survive in some towns a few working men's associations (vereenigingen van werklieden) which somewhat resemble the old Guilds. Of this, nature are the weigh-house, porters' associations (waagdragers-veemen) at Amsterdam, the societies of the cornmeters (korenmeters), corn-porters (korendragers), turf-porters (turfdragers), children of the crane or kraan

now

no

kinderen (who were employed in the loading and unloading of ships), and others in different towns. It was shortly afterwards ordered, by royal decrees of 1815 and 1827, that these labourers should be appointed, and an oath administered to them by the municipal authorities, to the intent that there might be always a supply of capable and trustworthy men for the trade to select from, without, however, binding the trade to make exclusive use of their services. The appointment and swearing in (die aans tellingen béëediging) however are longer continued, and in substitution the workmen in some towns form mutual associations (zich onderling associeeren) in order to establish a uniform rate of payment for their labour. They admit into their associations only men of honest and upright character, and they have an office in common (gemeenschappelijk kantoor), where applications for workmen are received. The work is distributed, and the earnings divided, amongst them according to certain fixed rules; they have also a reserve fund (spaarkassen en fondsen) for the support of invalid members of the association. These voluntary associations, however, have no official character, and no privileges or monopolies, every employer of labour being free to choose whether he shall make use of their services or not. They recommend themselves only by a moral guarantee for good and faithful service.

II.-The right of membership of the Guilds was anciently joined to certain conditions, the first, which was universal, being the possession by the participant (deelgenoot) of the right of citizenship or freedom of a town (poorter of burgerrecht) but in most communities it was not a difficult matter to obtain this right. Hence it naturally followed that the sons of Guildbrothers (Gildebroeders), as sons of citizens, had the right to claim admission to the Guilds; provided they fulfilled the other conditions, which were a certain period of service as apprentice and journeyman (leerling en gezel) and the presentation of a masterpiece (de levering van proefwerk). In this sense the right of membership of a Guild (deelgenootschap aan het Gild) was hereditary, passing from the father to those of his sons who were brought up to his business; but a son who did not pursue the occupation was not received into the Guild. and thus the custom here differs materially from that which obtains in England.

III.-There are no longer any Guilds. The old Guilds had some possessions and funds, but not of any great importance.

IV. This question is superfluous, seeing that the Guilds have been suppressed.

V. This question also for the same reason does not need an answer. Perhaps, however, it may be as well to mention that in the provinces of North Brabant and Limburg, where the Roman Catholic religion is in the ascendant, all the working men engaged in the same occupation form themselves into an association for profit or pleasure, as, for instance, musical and choral societies (muziekgezelschappen en zangvereenigingen), and that on solemn occasions and religious festivals these societies march in procession with music and banners.

VI.-The answer to this question has already been given in the reply to Question I. It is difficult to say how the property of the suppressed Guilds has every where been disposed of. In many cases the greater part was added to the Municipal chest ; a part was also originally applied to the relief of old and indigent members and their widows and children. But that is long ago, and it would not now be easy to trace more accurately the particulars of its eventual disposal. S. VISSERING.

THE GUILDS OF BELGIUM.

"Res

Liége, July 1, 1883. The Guilds in Belgium were all suppressed at the end of the last century, and their property being nullius" escheated to the Crown. Their resuscitation was at the same time prohibited.

More recently, in a suit relating to a Guild at Termonde, which had managed to escape suppression, it was held by the Belgian High Court of Justice that the existence of such a civil personage was legally impossible, and that consequently its real estate reverted to the Crown, that the members were not owners individuals (à titre individuel), and that the Guild as a body could not possess, for in the eyes of the law it was not only non-existent but even illegal.

as

The abuses which sprang from the existence and administration of these bodies were the causes of so stringent a measure, which was moreover in conformity with the individualising tendency of the 18th century.

It is perhaps necessary in Catholic countries to take steps to prevent the land from passing into the hands of religious associations, but it cannot be denied that such measures are an obstacle to the creation of many useful works, and necessitate continued and increasing intervention by the State.

E. DE LAVELEYE.

GUILDS OF FRANCE.

Fontainebleau, April 26, 1883. I.-In the Middle Ages, more especially after the close of the 12th century, the trades had in most of the large towns their organised Corporations. The first important collection of their statutes was made in the reign of Saint Louis, by direction of Etienne Boileau, provost of Paris. The hundred Corporations appearing therein existed previously, and the provost only caused the registration of certain customs which already flourished in Paris. A very rich Corporation, whose existence in Paris in the 12th century is well ascertained, did not cause its statutes to be inserted in the register of Etienne Boileau.

During the second half of the 13th and first half of the 14th centuries the number of these Corporations increased proportionately to the development of trade. The one hundred years war, owing to the ruin which it brought on a great part of the country, had a very disastrous effect on the Corporations, and many of them even ceased to exist in consequence of the attendant commercial distress.

The period from 1450 to 1550 saw the re-establishment of a large number of them. The power and especially the justice of the Sovereign had become preponderant; the old Corporations on their reconstitution and the new on arranging their statutes appealed to the royal administration which confirmed by letters patent the existence of these privileged bodies, and this was the new system.

In 1581 an edict of King Henry III. ordered the organisation by trade-guilds (corps de métiers) of all the urban artizans in the Kingdom, authorised those artizans who had been admitted to the freedom (reçus maîtres) in one town to practise their trade (under certain conditions) in another, and set apart for the royal treasury a proportion of the fines payable on admission to the freedom (droits payés pour l'obtention de la maîtrise). This edict issued amid the troubles of the League never took effect. It was confirmed in the reign of Henry IV. by an edict dated 1597. During the ministry of Colbert an ordinance was issued in 1673 by which all trades were formed into communities. The number of Corporations was again increased at this time, and the system of trade and craft Guilds became in the municipality the recognised mode of industrial organisation until the revolution of 1789.

During Turgot's ministry, by an edict of March 1776, the craft and trade Guilds (communautés d'arts et métiers) were suppressed and freedom of labour was proclaimed. Turgot, however, soon quitted the Ministry, and in August 1776 was issued another edict by which the Corporations were re-established at Paris with certain modifications of their former organisation.

By Act of 2, 17 March 1791, passed by the Assemblée Constituante, the régime of Corporations was finally made to give place to the system of freedom of labour.

II.-Admission to membership by Patrimony was unknown in the French Corporations. Before admission it was necessary to have been received as master, the qualifications for which were the execution of a master piece and its acceptance by a jury. In most of the trades the Candidate before attempting the masterpiece was required to have served for a certain time as journeyman. In many trades the number of freemen (maîtres) was limited by statute, and, unless in exceptional cases, admissions to the freedom (maîtrise) could only be made when there was a vacancy. The King, however, would, under certain circumstances, make grants of the freedom (lettres de maîtrise) of any of the Corporations, and these being sold to the highest bidders considerably augmented the Royal revenues. Although the sons did not necessarily succeed their fathers, nevertheless in almost all the Corporations they enjoyed special privileges, such as exemption from the masterpiece, reduction of the fines payable on admission to freedom (droits de maîtrise), dispensation from the probationary course, and right of admission by special favour on a vacancy arising in preference to the

other journeymen. In a small number of Corporations the sons alone, or with them the sons-in-law, and some other relations, were allowed to succeed. But membership of the trade Guild was always conditional on the exercise of the trade.

I know of no instance to the contrary. The most that was admissible was that in certain Corporations the old freemen (anciens maîtres) after retiring from business were allowed to continue to be members of the Corporation, but examples even of this were much less frequent in the Corporations than in the brotherhoods (confréries).

The brotherhood, a religious and charitable association, was ordinarily closely connected with the Corporation, but it was not the Corporation, which was a duly constituted body possessing the exclusive privilege to practise and control a certain industry in a town.

III.-There exist at the present day in France certain Corporations or bodies owning property, but none of them-so far, at least, as I know-possess any property dating from a period anterior to 1789, since they were all dissolved at that time.

The reply, like the question, is to be understood as referring solely to the industrial and commercial Guilds, and not as including the advocates, the ministerial officers, or the religious Corporations.

Amongst the bodies or Corporations of the economic class which hold property may be mentioned certain Chambers of Commerce-that of Lyons, for example, and that of Paris-which possess several commercial schools; syndical chambers which, though they have no recognised legal existence, are nevertheless the owners of real property, where they have erected their offices. IV. The Chambers of Commerce do not exercise any control over trade, but some of them render certain services which constitute a species of control, as, for instance, the silk and woollen trades at Lyons and Paris.

At the "Halles" of Paris there are several Corporations subordinate to the Prefecture of Police enjoying certain monoplies for the sale and transport of merchandise, and in consequence exercising a certain control over their members. There are others in other localities and at some of the seaport towns.

V.-The Corporations do not, as a rule, take part in processions or in festivals, whether civil or ecclesiastical. At the last fête, however, in Paris the Municipal Council invited, I believe, delegates from the Syndical Chambers. The journeymen's societies, which have never had a legal existence, have long been in the habit of appearing at certain ceremonies with their insignia, canes, ribands, &c. The bearing of these insignia was formerly prohibited, but is now tolerated.

VI. They were suppressed, as has already been said, by Act of 2-17 March 1791. Many of them were owners of property consisting chiefly of the Hall (maison commune), where were the offices, and sometimes beds for a few aged and indigent freemen (maîtres). I do not know of any industrial Corporation in France anterior to 1789 possessed of any considerable property or estate in any way comparable to those of some of the Guilds of the City of London. Many of them had got into debt, and were paying interest on loans.

After the suppression of the Corporations the State, entering into possession of their real property, and refunding to the freemen a part of their freedom fine, charged itself with the winding up of their affairs. But this winding up or liquidation interrupted by polical events, and by the regime of Assignats was never brought to a conclusion.

The replies to Questions 1, 2, and 6, will be found more fully delveloped in the two volumes entitled "Histoire des classes ouvrières en France depuis la

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conquêté de J. Cèsar jusqu'à nos jours," by E. Levasseur; and the replies to Questions 3, 4, 5, and 6, will be found partially developed in the two volumes of the "Histoire des classes ouvrières en France depuis la "revolution de 1739 jusqu'à nos jours," also by E. Levasseur.

E. LEVASSEUR.

105, Boulevard St. Michel, Paris, June 27, 1883.

I. There have existed in France from a period somewhat difficult to determine with accuracy, but certainly anterior to the 12th century, a great number of communities of arts and trades, mercantile corporations and transport companies officially recognised by the administration, and having each its own statutes, hierarchy,