a union of tribes, or the expansion of the single tribe, forms the state. The units of the family are individuals, the units of the tribe are families, the units of the state are tribes or villages. The family is the first step, the tribe the second step, and the state the last step in social development. Man becomes perfect only in the state. The state is not the result of agreement, contract, or convention among men; it is an organic development, and so, perfectly natural. It is imposed on man by the conditions of his highest life; it is the only condition in which he can achieve all that he is capable of achieving. Hence the Aristotelian maxim, "Man is born to be a citizen." The state differs from the family, therefore, in the number of its members, and in the number and nature of them.

9. THE DOCTRINE OF CONTRACT.-Once it was the fashion to say that the state is an artificial product or mechanism. Those who held this doctrine reasoned thus: At first, there was no society or government. Men lived in a free, natural condition, every one doing what he pleased. In this state they enjoyed a great many rights and privileges that they could not enjoy when they came to live together in society. For example, men living alone in the forest, or in small numbers, could safely do a great many things that they could not do living in a town or city. But living in this way, men suffered the want of those advantages that spring out of society and government. Hence, they agreed to enter into society, and to constitute government. According to this agreement, they surrendered those natural rights that would bring them into conflict with one another; they established certain rules of conduct, and appointed officers to enforce these rules.

The most celebrated defence of this theory is Rousseau's work, "The Social Contract."

10. REFUTATION OF THIS THEORY.-The truth is, no such contract as this was ever entered into by men, either directly or indirectly. Men live together just as naturally as birds pair and gather into flocks, or as bees live in swarms; and government is a natural and necessary outgrowth of this condition. Thus, society and government, although very simple at first, have existed from the time that the first man and the first woman formed the first family. The first child was born into a community already

existing, and he became subject to an authority that he had no part in creating or in administering. And so it is now; children are born into society, and are subject to government from the time that they draw their first breath. As they grow up, they continue members of society; they may or they may not assist in carrying on the government; but they never have anything to do with creating the society into which they are born, or with originating its government. No man is ever invited to enter society; no man ever enters it of his own accord; no man is ever asked whether he will become a subject of government; no man ever becomes such of his own choice. A man may choose to live in this society rather than in that one, or to be subject to one government rather than to another one; but he must live in some society, and so be under some government, unless, indeed, he become a hermit. Hence the rule, that a man is bound to render obedience to the government under which he lives.

But still more, men could not come together and frame such a compact as this theory supposes unless society, government, and the state already existed. Compacts in plenty are found in political history, but they belong to a considerably advanced stage of social and political progress, and never to its beginning. Thus, compact assumes the very fact that it seeks to explain.

11. THE THEOLOGICAL THEORY.-This theory regards the state as the immediate workmanship of God. The New Testament says government is an ordinance of God, and makes it a divine institution. But this language cannot mean that the Divine Being directly created the particular governments that now exist, or that have existed. Government is divine in the sense that marriage, the family, children, society, and the state are divine; it is a necessary condition of the existence of the human race. God ordained society, government, and the state when He gave man his social nature.

(4). THE OFFICE of Government.

12. RIGHTS AND DUTIES.-Men have rights that they should enjoy, and duties that they ought to perform. They are entitled to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness so long as they properly conduct themselves. They must also regard the lives, liberty, and happiness of their fellows. Securing to men their rights and

compelling them to perform their duties, together constitute the maintenance of justice. But since some men, left to themselves, will not do justice, there must be in society some authority or power that will look after the matter and see that justice is done. Accordingly, justice is the first duty of society. As Aristotle says: "Justice is the bond of men in states, and the administration of justice, which is the determination of what is just, is the principle of order in political society."1

13. SOCIAL PROGRESS.-The well-being of society-particularly advanced society-requires a great many things to be done that are not embraced in justice. Roads and bridges must be built and kept in order; harbors and light-houses must be constructed; letters and newspapers must be carried from place to place; schools and education must be furnished; the arts, sciences, and good morals must be fostered. Nor can these things be provided by single men, or by a few men associated together, even if they are disposed to provide them; they call for the united strength of the community. Hence, the promotion of its own progress is the second duty of society.

14. THE OFFICE OF GOVERNMENT TWOFOLD.-The instrument whereby society directly insures justice and progress is the government. On the one side, this consists of customs, rules, or laws commanding what society wishes to have done and forbidding what it does not wish to have done; on the other, it consists of rulers or officers whose business it is to see that these rules or laws are enforced. It is easy to see what would be the result if a society were without government. Not only would progress be impossible, but society could not exist. First would come anarchy, or that social state in which every man does as he pleases, and then destruction. Society and social order must go together. Government is a universal fact. Man, society, and government are always found together; they are the broadest terms in the vocabulary of political science. A group of savages eating shellfish on the sea-shore has no written laws, no legislature, no courts, no president; but it has some customs that take the place of laws, and a head, as the father of the family or the chief of the tribe, who sees that these customs are enforced. Govern

1 Politics, I, 2. 15.

ment will always be rude and simple when society is rude and simple, but there will be government. Aristotle says: "Man is more of a political animal than bees or any other gregarious animals." "1

Govern and governor are from the Latin gubernare and gubernator, which primarily mean to steer a ship, and a pilot or steersman.

15. GOVERNMENT COERCIVE.-Government is coercive by its very nature. Its first duty is to compel obedience to its mandates. A government that is not obeyed is no government at all. This coercive power comes from society; whenever it is necessary government has the right, and is in duty bound, to summon to its aid all the powers that society possesses to secure its ends. This it does in the name of society and for its defence.

16. THE STATE AND THE GOVERNMENT.-It is important to observe that the state is one thing, the government quite another. The state is the corporate people; the government, a system of agents and powers that the people have either organized, or permitted to be organized, to carry on the public functions of society, Therefore, government is not an end but a means. This doctrine, which was explicitly taught by Aristotle, has not been better stated than by Dante.

"And the aim of such rightful Commonwealths is liberty, to wit, that men may live for their own sake. For citizens are not for the sake of the Consuls, nor a nation for the King; but contrariwise the Consuls are for the sake of the Citizens, the King for the sake of the Nation. For as a Commonwealth is not subordinate to laws, but laws to the Commonwealth, so men who live according to the law are not for the service of the lawgiver, but he for theirs; which is the Philosopher [Plato's] opinion in that which he hath left us concerning the present matter. Hence it is plain also that though a Consul or King regard of means be the lords of others, yet in regard of the end they are the servants of others; and most of all, the Monarch, who without doubt is to be deemed the servant of all."2

17. PATRIARCHAL GOVERNMENT.-Family and tribal societies are called patriarchal societies; their governments are known as

1 Politics, I., 2, 10.

2 Quoted by Pollock: History of the Science of Politics, 37, 38.

patriarchal governments. The first two syllables of this word mean father, the second two government; so that, in the original sense, patriarchal government is government by a father. It is applied to tribes as well as families, because the original rulers of the tribe were the fathers of the oldest family. It is a form of government well adapted to the purposes of the tribe, but will not answer the purposes of a large and progressive society. Accordingly, we find patriarchal government in the savage or half-civilized states of society, although not to the exclusion of other forms in the half-civilized state, but we never find it in civilized societies. They have outgrown it. But human society, at some stage of its progress, universally presents this type of social organization.

We have an excellent example of a patriarchal ruler in Abraham, and of the development of a patriarchal tribe into a nation and a state in his descendants, as narrated in the Book of Genesis. Abraham breaks away from the ancestral tribe, beyond the River Euphrates, and removes to the Land of Canaan. He has flocks, herds, a large retinue of servants and children, and is a man of much power and consequence. On his death, his son Isaac becomes the head of the tribe, and he is succeeded in turn by his son Jacob. Jacob has twelve sons, every one of whom becomes the head of a tribe, but the process of separation now ceases; the twelve tribes are confederated, and are known as one people. In time, the tribes cease to wander as their fathers had done; they become fixed in Canaan, and at last grow into a nation and a state, ruled first by judges and afterwards by kings.

(5). KINDS OF Government.

18. ARISTOTLE'S DIVISION OF GOVERNMENTS.-Apparently the first scientific division of governments was that made by Aristotle, into the monarchy, the aristocracy, and the democracy. This division has been much criticised but generally followed; its general acceptance attests its excellence. A recent writer has pointed out that it is rather a division of states than of governments, and that it had greater value in former times when the state and the government were conceived of as practically one and the same thing, than it has now when they are commonly separated.1 Plainly, 1 Burgess: Political Science I. 71, 72.