placed in immediate charge of the applications, and has control of the agents. This joint bureau makes it possible to refer each case at once to the particular agency best prepared to handle the problem. Duplication of effort and the referral of cases from one society to another is thus avoided. In this instance three societies of different character, and to some extent of different purpose, although performing much identical work, have wisely hit upon a plan of coöperation which greatly facilitates their work and enhances their efficiency in child saving.

In 1912 this bureau made 10,062 visits: Applications for investigation came from 131 different sources, including churches, societies, institutions, hospitals, courts, city and county departments, individuals, etc. The Detroit Bureau investigates cases on request and reports to the society asking for the information and to the agency fitted to take charge of the case. In Pittsburg the Associated Charities has established a children's bureau. Very successful coöperation is being carried on in Boston, where several child-caring agencies use identical record blanks and work together in other ways.

In some cities temporary homes for children, orphanages, and the board of education have coöperated with child-saving societies and with the juvenile court for the purpose of assisting in the disposition of juvenile delinquents, and especially for the placing of dependent and neglected children. But many agencies are unwilling to take court cases.

Denominational institutions are frequently anxious to take care of children of their own faith, but this does not constitute real coöperation. Denominational jealousies and the fear that children will be placed with foster parents professing antagonistic religions are among the other obstacles to better coöperation between institutions and home-finding societies, or between these and the courts. The essential principles and methods of child saving being agreed upon, these various agencies should be able to yield a maximum of good results. Some first steps in coöperation often follow informal organization of child welfare societies, and the better understanding of each other and of mutual problems paves the way for actual coöperation.

h. Requisites of Institutional Care.

A well-ordered institution requires a preliminary investigation of the family and conditions of the applicant before admitting him. On admission the child is turned over to the receiving department, where he is examined by the physician for disease and bodily defects. A record is made of the various items, and if the child is fit, he then becomes an inmate of the institution. Food should be a subject of careful inquiry, and a scientific dietary provided for the children. The sleeping arrangements should be such as will carefully guard the morals of the inmates, and the place should be made as much like a home and as little like an institution as possible.

The child should be allowed to earn and use money and make the numerous contacts so essential to success in the world. Adequate recreational facilities are necessary, since many children are of inferior physique and need special attention. Industrial training should usually be given, but the public schools should be used wherever possible. The development of morals is an important consideration. Facilities for placing-out should be provided and efforts be made to place children in homes. Those who are mentally and physically normal should be removed from institutions as soon as good homes can be found, but supervision must be maintained to safeguard the interests of the children. No institution should attempt to care for both normal and mentally defective children, and the latter, if received, should as soon as possible be transferred to institutions caring for this class of children.

i. Prohibition of Children in Almshouses.

The use of the almshouse as an institution for the care of dependent children is alien to the proper function of that institution. Nevertheless, the almshouse has served as a shelter for children, especially in the country districts, where other facilities for their care have not been provided, but the large cities have also erred in this respect. Formerly it was customary to dispose of children in this way, and social ideals did not forbid; but scientific philanthropy now opposes this policy, and regardless of age no children should be placed in an almshouse, al

though the practice is least objectionable as applied to children under two years of age. Some of the states have laws prohibiting the almshouse care of children under certain ages. In New York the custom has been almost entirely abolished, and in 1912 less than one-half of 1 per cent of the almshouse inmates of the state were normal children. The general situation throughout the United States is, however, still very unsatisfactory.

2. Special Problems.

a. Desertion and Non-support.

If possible, parents must be held responsible for the support of their children. Desertion is an important cause of destitution, while failure to provide not only causes distress but is frequently accompanied by cruelty as well. These evils can be greatly reduced, but to accomplish this end efficient desertion and non-support laws must be enacted and the courts likewise must enforce them. The uniform law suggested by the Commission on Uniform State Laws contains the following very significant items among its provisions:

The desertion by either parent of children under 16 years of age, leaving them in destitute circumstances, constitutes a misdemeanor.

Both husband and wife shall be competent witnesses.

Proof that the desertion of wife and children results in destitution is evidence that the desertion is willful.

The court may order the husband to provide for the support of his wife and children. A violation of this order may be punished as contempt of court.

Punishment consists of a heavy fine or imprisonment at hard labor for a period not exceeding one year.

For each hard day's labor performed by the delinquent husband a certain sum of money shall be turned over to the wife for the support of the family.

Wife and child desertion was formerly classified as a misdemeanor, but in recent years a tendency has developed to make it a felony. This is due to the belief that extradition cannot be secured unless the crime is made a felony. This position, however, is erroneous, although in actual practice extradition

papers are not usually granted for a misdemeanor. In 1905 only four states had made the crime a felony, but in 1913 practically one-third of the states had done so. In spite of this development the weight of authority is opposed to the change. Extradition is possible with the crime classed as a misdemeanor, but public funds must be appropriated so that the cost of bringing the deserter back need not be borne by the wife. Furthermore, wives are reluctant to prosecute, if a penitentiary sentence is involved; besides it will be more difficult to secure convictions.

Family and child desertion cases are frequently handled in lower courts which have little comprehension of the social significance of the problem. Usually only cases involving children are important, and these can be handled with best results by the juvenile court unless a domestic relations court exists to give them attention. They should be referred to one of these two courts because here the interests of the family will receive first attention. When the functions of these two courts are merged in a single court differences in regard to jurisdiction could not arise, and the disposition of cases would be simplified. Another important consideration is the provision for maintaining the deserted or neglected family. The city of Washington opened the way for wholesome reform on this point, the law of 1906 allowing the court to order the defendant to pay a specified sum regularly to the wife or to some other person or agency caring for the minor children. Meanwhile the deserter is placed on probation, and should he be sent to the workhouse, fifty cents per day is paid to the family for every day of hard labor performed by the man. This places a premium on good conduct, for if a man does not support his family while he is at large, he does and must support it, in part, while in the workhouse. This alternative is not an alluring one. A number of states and cities have now made similar provision for the support of the family, and California and Washington both pay $1.50 per day for hard labor. The plan of action begun in these states promises good results.

Lack of strong sentiment in favor of apprehending and

punishing deserters constitutes a real difficulty. The public must insist on extradition, if that is necessary, and on the trial of non-support cases before the family is reduced to the direst poverty. It must assume the cost of bringing the deserter back and then lay as heavy a burden on him as is needed to insure the performance of his rightful obligations.

The Jewish philanthropies have devised a very successful plan for apprehending deserters through the organization of a national desertion bureau to which all deserters are reported. The information is spread throughout the Jewish sections in the United States by means of newspaper descriptions. The success of this plan is shown by the results of the work of 14 months, which indicate that out of 852 cases handled, 561, or nearly two-thirds, were located and dealt with. This plan, however, is difficult of general application.

b. The Illegitimate Child.

No form of dependency offers a more serious problem than that accompanied by illegitimacy. The child who never needs relief may outgrow his parents' shame, but the one who sinks below the poverty line has little chance. Accordingly, more energy should be aimed against illegitimacy than against most forms of dependency and neglect. If anything at all is done, the problem is usually handled by a combination of public and private agencies. Certain it is that public authority must assert itself, or little preventive work can be done. It is worth something to care for the child, but when one realizes the stigma that is attached, it is clear that the preventive work is by all means the most important. The shifting of the emphasis from mother to child also gives us a new perspective. Formerly when girl mothers placed their babies in crèches, they often found their way back into wholesome society, but the baby probably perished. Now we insist that the baby shall live, that the mother shall not be entirely relieved of its care, but also that illegitimacy shall be wiped out. In fact, the proper care of the child is one of the greatest deterrents of the evil.

An important step in advance is the registration of illegitimate births so that the public may know something of the extent of