posed to be taken at once to heaven and their funerals are celebrated like joyful events with festivity and the ringing of bells.

21. GOVERNMENT. Spain is an absolute monarchy, in which the power of the king has no limits but the slender barrier that public opinion can, in a country without education or a press, interpose. The evils of this kind of government have in Spain been peculiarly aggravated, by the individual character of the monarchs. The title of Catholic Majesty which was granted by the Pope to Ferdinand in 1496, has been continued to the succeeding sovereigns. In the king's title are enumerated all territories which he holds, or at any time has held. The heir apparent is called Prince of Asturias. Infanta is the title of all the other royal children.

22. LAWS. Either the spirit or administration of the laws must be defective, for neither life nor property is universally safe. There are several ancient codes, and the civil and canon laws have some authority. Justice in Spain carries with it more terror than mercy; and is avoided as a pestilence. It is now as in the time of Gil Blas, perilous alike for the guilty and the innocent to enter its courts. When a murder is committed, all run from the dying victim, as they would from the murderer; and when one is found murdered in a house, the very walls of the dwelling are stripped by the hungry followers of justice. One of the greatest obstacles to public and private justice is found in the notaries, or escribanos. A more efficient system could hardly be devised for the obstruction of justice. The notaries only, receive the testimonies of witnesses, putting what questions they will, and reading such replies as may the best advance their own interest; and often in the absence of the judge. The notaries are therefore sometimes bribed before the commission of the crime. The clergy often interfere, to obtain the pardon of an offender, but when he has no friend among the notaries or clergy, the execution of justice is generally certain and severe. The manner of executing criminals is worthy the country where condemnation has so often been wrested from the groans of the innocent. Death is inflicted by the garrote, which is an iron chair with a collar, fitting close about the neck: this is tightened by a lever or screw, and causes instantaneous death.

Hanging by the neck is however the most infamous and the most common. The Verdugo or hangman is dressed in green, from an ultra catholic aversion to the sacred color of Mahomet. He posts himself on the second round of the ladder, while the criminal with pinioned arms is brought to the first. He grasps his victim under the arms with an alacrity that shows his duty and his pleasure to be the same, till both arrive at the proper height, while a clergyman in sackcloth and girded with a scourge follows closely, continually exhorting the criminal. The hangman places two cords of equal length over the shoulder of the shivering wretch, seats himself firmly about his neck, with his feet in the crossed wrists, as a stirrup, and both swing off and fall together. In this position the Verdugo jumps up and down, while the assistants hang upon the malefactor's legs below. Thus die the patriots as well as the malefactors of Spain, and thus perished Riego!

23. ANTIQUITIES. Spain abounds in the antiquities of three powerful nations of the Romans, the Goths and the Moors. As the remains are chiefly architectural, all but those of the Romans will be mentioned in the account of cities. The Roman antiquities are in good preservation, and some of them are monuments of art. At Coruña is a columnar pharos, with an inscription which somewhat confirms a tradition that it was consecrated to Hercules by the Phenicians, and afterwards repaired by the Romans who dedicated it to Mars. One half of the bridge over the Tormes at Salamanca was built by the Romans, the rest was made by Philip IV. Segovia retains its Latin name, and it has a magnificent aqueduct built by Trajan. This has a double range of arcades, and it has conveyed water to the town for upwards of 1700 years. It has 109 arches, the largest 90 feet from the ground to the conduit, and the

length of the space they cover is more than 2,530 feet. In Barcelona are several Roman remains. Near Villa Franca is an ancient aqueduct forming a line between two steep mountains. Near Villanova are the ruins of a fortress, and numerous sepulchres dug in the rocks. These indicate the site of Carthago Vetus, a town mentioned by Ptolemy. There is a triumphal arch beyond the town of Vendrell and near Torre-dam-Barra, a magnificent tomb, which according to a popular tradition contains the ashes of Scipio. At Tarragona is another Roman aqueduct still used to convey water. At Alcantara there is a noble bridge over the Tagus, built by Trajan. It rises to the height of 211 feet 10 inches above the river; its length is 568 feet and its breadth 27 feet 6 inches. Of the six arches the two central ones are 94 feet wide. There is an inscription in honor of the Emperor and a mausoleum for the architect, at the end of the bridge. It is built of stones enor

mously large, and is at present consecrated as a chapel to St Julian. In

other

Merida the Roman remains are little inferior in number or interest to those of
the towns in Italy. There are two ancient bridges of great solidity and in
good preservation; one has 60 arches and extends 2800 feet. Among the anti-
quities within the walls are a fine triumphal arch, the ruins of temples, columns,
inscriptions, &c. Without the walls are a theatre, a naumachia, a circus, the
remains of three aqueducts and of four Roman
There are many
ways.
antiquities of inferior magnitude and interest in various parts of Spain.
24. REVENUE, DEBT, &c. The revenue of Spain was once the largest in Eu-
rope, but is now greatly reduced. In 1828 it amounted to 26,520,000 dollars.
The debt in the same year was 230,443,062 dollars: it is rapidly accumulat
ing. The system of taxation is very defective and varies according to the
exigencies of the government.*

25. ARMY AND NAVY. The peace establishment is about 50,000 men. During war the army is increased to 175,000, but is very deficient in discipline. In 1826 the navy consisted of 10 ships of the line and 16 frigates, including the oldest hulks and those on the stocks.

26. COLONIES. Of all the immense territories in America which formerly belonged to Spain, none remain under her dominion but the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico, and the city of St Domingo in Hispaniola. In Africa she possesses Ceuta, Metilla, Pennon and Albucenas on the Barbary Coast, and the Canary Islands in the Atlantic. In Asia are the Philippines, Caroline and Ladrone Islands.

27. POPULATION. The number of inhabitants in Spain was estimated in 1826, at 13,732,172. Of these 127,345 belonged to the clergy; 100,732 were soldiers, and 14,064 sailors. The population of the colonies is estimated at 4,088,000, making a total of 17,830,172 for the Spanish monarchy.

28. HISTORY. The early inhabitants of Spain were various Celtic tribes. The attempts of the Carthaginians to establish colonies in the country gave rise to the second Punic war with the Romans, which resulted in the acquisition of the whole peninsula by the Romans. It continued a Roman province for nearly 700 years. At the fall of the Roman empire, the Vandals, Alani and Suevi invaded Spain, and in 419 the empire of the Visigoths was founded. In the early part of the 8th century the Saracens invaded the country from Africa. Roderic the last Gothic king, was defeated by them at the battle of Xeres and the Gothic inhabitants were driven into the mountains of Asturias and Biscay. The Moors established themselves in the southern part of the

*The revenue is ordinarily derived from the following sources: customs, duties on tobacco and salt, stamps, lotteries, lanzas, or contributions exacted from the grandees as an equivalent for the lances or horsemen which they formerly furnished to the crown, the cruzada, an ancient tax levied for the crusades, the excusado a subsidy granted by the pope for the revenue of the clergy, the noveno, a ninth part of the tithes, the tercias, two ninths of the tithes, the diezmo, a tax on the river fishings at Seville, half the annats of the secular clergy, fines, posts, capitation tax and duties on gunpowder, saltpetre and other products.

feet. In Bart an ancient

Villanova e

ks. These mis There is

-. a

am-Barra a s the ashes

It by Trajan

its length

e two cent

Emperor a

bait of a pel to Sta or interest

Treats

et. Ama of temples nachia, a here are

rts of Sar

ce the

2520 rapidly

country and their sovereigns reigned in great splendor at Granada. The
Spaniards were roused to resistance by Don Pelayo, and maintained a strug-
gle against the Moors, which the Spanish historians dignify with the name of
a continual war of 700 years. The territories gained from the enemy were
formed into several distinct kingdoms. These were gradually amalgamated,
and in 1-469 the marriage of Ferdinand, king of Arragon with Isabella, queen
of Castile, united the whole of Christian Spain into one kingdom. These
Sovereigns conquered Granada, and completed the total subjugation of the
Moorish power in the peninsula, at the same time that Columbus under their
auspices discovered America and gave them a new world in the west.

In the 16th century, under Charles V., who was king of this country and
Emperor of Germany, Spain was the most powerful monarchy in Europe.
Philip II. the successor of this monarch, expelled all the Moriscoes or descen-
dants of the Moors who remained in the country, which caused an immense
loss to the kingdom in wealth and population. The war of the Succession
in the early part of the 18th century, completed the impoverishment of the
country, and Spain has been only a second rate power since that time.
In 1808, Napoleon seized the kingdom and placed his brother Joseph upon
the throne, but the resistance of the people who were assisted by the armies of
Britain, and his reverses in Russia, frustrated his plans. This event caused
the revolt of nearly all Spanish America. In 1820, an insurrection of
the troops and the people against the tyrant Ferdinand produced a liberal
constitution, which was sworn to by the king in the ancient assembly of the
Cortes. But the Holy Alliance expressed their disapprobation. France in-
terfered; the constitution was put down by the bayonet, and despotism re-
stored.

1. BOUNDARIES AND EXTENT. Portugal is bounded north and east by
Spain, south and west by the Atlantic. It lies between 370 3' and 42° 11'

N. lat., and 70 20 and 9° 40′ W. lon. It is 360 miles in length, and 160 in
breadth, and contains 36,945 square miles.

2. MOUNTAINS. The mountains of Portugal are prolongations of the ranges, we have already described in Spain. The Sierra de Cintra is the extremity of the Iberian chain, and reaches to the sea, a little north of the mouth of the Tagus, where it forms the celebrated Rock of Cintra. The Sierra de Guadalupe extends to the sea at Cape St Vincent.

3. RIVERS. The Duero rises in Spain, and passing into this country, takes the name of Douro, and flows into the sea at Oporto. The Tagus passes from Spain through Portugal to the sea at Lisbon. The Mondego is a small stream between the above rivers, which has the whole of its course in Portugal. The Minho forms part of the northern boundary, and the Guadiana passes into the kingdom and forms part of its southeastern limit.

4. CAPES. Cape St Vincent is a very prominent headland, forming the Southeastern extremity of the kingdom; it is the termination of one of the mountain ranges already described. Cape Roca, a little to the north of the Tagus, is the extremity of another chain. It is a celebrated sea-mark, known to mariners as the 'Rock of Lisbon.'

5. CLIMATE. The climate is more agreeable and healthy than in the most of Spain. The air of Lisbon is famed for its salubrity, and that city is resorted

to by invalids from different countries. The heat of summer, and cold of winter, are tempered by the neighboring ocean. At Lisbon there are commonly 200 days in the year completely fair. The rainy days are not more than 80. When rain falls, it is very violent. If October is rainy, it is not uncommon to see the fruit trees blossom anew in November.

6. SOIL. Portugal is a fertile country; the soil is light and easily cultivated. The mountains are mostly barren, but some of them are covered with a fine vegetation.

7. MINERALS. The Romans had mines in this country, vestiges of which are still to be seen; yet Portugal is not at present productive in minerals. There have been found here, gold, silver, tin, lead, copper, iron, coal, quicksilver, rubies, hyacinth, beryl, manganese, bismuth and arsenic.

8. FACE OF THE COUNTRY. This country has not so great a proportion of mountains as Spain. There are two extensive plains in the north and south. The coast is low in the north, but grows high and rocky toward the south. In the wildness and grandeur of mountain scenery, Portugal is inferior to Spain, yet in general appearance it is esteemed a more pleasant country.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

1. DIVISIONS. Portugal is divided into six Provinces, namely - Entre Douro e Minho, Tras os Montes, Beira, Estremadura, Alemtejo and Algarve, which last has the title of a kingdom. The population is estimated at 3,013,570.

2. CITIES AND TOWNS. Lisbon, the capital, stands on the north bank of the Tagus, 10 miles from its mouth. It rises gradually from the water, and makes a magnificent appearance from without. The harbor formed by the expansion of the river is nine miles wide, and is one of the finest havens in the world. The interior of the city disappoints the expectation created by the first view. It is ill built, with dirty, narrow, and crooked streets, yet some parts of modern construction are not wanting in elegance. There are thirteen large squares, the finest of which is the Praça do Commerico; this is fronted by elegant buildings, and bordered toward the river by the handsomest quays in Europe. In the centre is an equestrian statue of Joseph I. The cathedral is magnificent, and remarkable for the boldness of its dome. The Royal Hospital is an excellent institution, and there is a large foundling hospital. Lisbon has also three observatories, many colleges and academies, 180 churches and chapels, 75 convents, and a royal library of 80,000 volumes. But the most remarkable edifice which it contains is the aqueduct of Bemfica. It is 10 miles in length; some of its arches are 200 feet high and 100 feet wide. Altogether this is one of the most magnificent structures that have been erected in modern times, and is not inferior to any ancient work of the same kind. There are three royal palaces in Lisbon and the neighborhood, and around the city are between six and seven thousand quintas, or country houses. Population, 260,000.*

Not far from Lisbon is the rock or mountain of Cintra, which consists of towering pinnacles composed of loose blocks of granite heaped together. Its

Lisbon has been terribly desolated by earthquakes. In 1755 the earth trembled with intervals, for a year. On the 1st of November, a violent shock laid the city in ruins. In the lower part of the city, not a street could be traced but by the fragments of broken walls. The cathedral fell, burying an immense quantity of wealth in its ruins. More than 100 palaces, churches, and convents were ruined, and the property of all kinds destroyed is incalculable. During the whole month of November, the earth continued to tremble two or three times a day. A conflagration added its destructive ravages to that of the earthquake. The heights about Lisbon were covered with people escaped from the city, and their innu merable multitude of tents resembled the encampment of an army. Dead bodies lay unburied among the ruins, and others were dug out alive, after being buried for several days. It is remarkable that the great aqueduct, notwithstanding its enormous height and extent,

remained unhurt.

environs exhibit the most beautiful scenery in the kingdom. Mafra, on the western side of the mountain is remarkable for a convent, church, and palace, adorned with painting and sculpture, and regarded as the most superb edifice in Portugal.

Coimbra on the Mondego is celebrated for its university. It has a delightful neighborhood, but the town is a dismal place within. Pop. 15,000. On the Mondego, near the town, is the Quinta de lagrimas, or house of tears, where Inez de Castro was imprisoned and murdered.

Oporto, on the Douro is an important seaport. Its harbor is excellent and the town strongly fortified by nature. It has some fine squares and churches, but the houses generally are mean, and the streets narrow. It has a great trade in the exportation of oranges, lemons, and the wine called from this place Port Wine. Pop. 70,000.

Braga, near the northern boundary, has some fine Roman ruins. Pop. 14,000.

Elvas, in the west, is a strongly fortified town. Pop. 10,000. Here is a remarkable aqueduct which leads the water into an enormous subterranean cistern under the ramparts of the town.

St Ubes or Setubal is a considerable seaport south of the Tagus. It has a large exportation of salt. Pop. 12,000.

Evora, to the east of Setubal, has many Roman remains, among which is a temple of Diana, now converted into public shambles. Pop. 9,050.

Leiria, a little to the north of Lisbon, is beautifully situated in the midst of a narrow valley, and has a famous annual fair. Pop. 7,000. The convent of Batalha, 6 miles from this place, is one of the most remarkable Gothic structures in Europe. Alcobaça, 12 miles from this place, is the richest monastic establishment in the world: the kitchen is 100 feet in length and is supplied with water by 8 fountains. Its domains comprise a tract of country 20 miles by 15, and contain 13 market towns and large villages, with two seaports and as many fortresses.

3. AGRICULTURE. Notwithstanding the fertility of the soil, agriculture is little practised or understood. Wheat and maize are the grains most commonly raised, but there is not sufficient produced in the country for the use of the inhabitants, and supplies are imported. Vegetables are everywhere cultivated, and flax and hemp partially. Wine is the chief production of the country.

4. COMMERCE. The commerce and industry of the Portuguese were formerly great, but they are now inconsiderable. Manufactured goods are imported from Great Britain, and salted and dried fish from the United States. The exports are wine and fruit. The commerce is mostly carried on by British and American vessels. The annual exports amount to about 11,000,000 dollars, American money.

5. MANUFACTURES. There are a few manufactories of woolen cloth at Covilham, Portalegre and Azeitao, and of hats and paper at Lisbon; but they are not sufficient for the supply of the country. Salt is made in the marshes upon the coast to the amount of 140,000 hogsheads annually.

6. FISHERIES. The rivers and coasts abound in fish similar to those of· Spain. The fisheries employ 18,000 men, and are heavily taxed by the government. They are much less productive as a source of wealth, than formerly.

7. INHABITANTS. These have not for centuries been mixed; they are well formed and slender, and dark in complexion. The females are distinguished for gracefulness. The privileged classes are the nobility and clergy; after which, rank the traders and peasantry. The nobility seldom live on their estates but reside at court where they hold all the offices. There are five orders of knighthood, with many commanderies, viz. the Order of Christ, of St James, of Avis, of St John, and of the Tower and Sword.