These extracts from Coptic and Ethiopic Apostolic canons and constitutions are enough to show their substantial identity with the so-called "Teaching of the twelve Apostles." It does not appear from this book whether it was transcribed from a Greek manuscript then in use in the Eastern church, or translated from a Coptic, Ethiopic or Arabic copy of Apostolic Doctrines or Ordinances. For the same teachings in substance have been undoubtedly in use in all these languages; each probably having peculiarities approved by the local church or churches in which they were used.

Nor is there any assurance that this version of the "Teachings" corresponds with that named by Eusebius and Athanasius. Many changes have undoubtedly been introduced. Some paragraphs appear obscure or confused, as though misapprehended by the transcriber, or copied mechanically, without adequate knowledge of their meaning.

The expression in Ch. I.: "Let thine alms sweat in thy hand," is not only singular but without significance. Topów means to sweat from toil. The corresponding expression in the Constitutions is certainly more apostolic: "It is reasonable to give to all out of thine own labors" (i. e. the sweat of thy brow). Let him labor working with his hands that he may have to give to him that needeth (Eph. iv. 28). In Ch. III. occurs the word "purifier," which is without meaning in its connection; in the Coptic the proper word is undoubtedly used "magician." In Ch. VII. the direction is "baptize in running water;" and "pour water upon the head thrice." This does not mean a running stream in which the catechumen stands "ankle deep, receiving baptism by the pouring of water on his head." There is no evidence that the Eastern church ever baptized in any other way than by immersion. Anything less than being plunged thrice in the water was not regarded as baptism; so that the modern method of a single dipping has no authority from the practice of the early church. The running water is explained in the Coptic canon as water drawn or flowing into the font, which was called living water. Baptisteries, with fonts, were constructed in or near the churches at an early day. Water was conveyed into them by various devices, and if there was a scarcity of water, a suffi

cient quantity was poured into the font by hand to allow the immersion of the catechumen. The baptistery connected with the Basilica of St. John Lateran is said to have been built by Constantine the Great, and was a very elaborate and costly structure. The water flowed into the font by the mouth of a golden lamb of thirty pounds weight. Into others the water flowed through an opening in one or more of the columns which surrounded them, or by some beautiful design, as the beak of a dove or the mouth of a stag. (Dissertazioni, Anton. Lupi., vol. i., pp. 113, 114. Faenza, 1785.) There is no fresco or painting from the Catacombs or elsewhere of a certainly ascertained date, prior to the beginning of the fourth century, which represents the ceremony of baptism. Any one familiar with the literature of the Catacombs can accept as true only monumental testimony or authentic cotemporary history. In the latter part of the third century, Cyprian advocated baptism by affusion in cases of infirmity or sickness; and in the Western Church this method, occasionally adopted, increased after the seventh century, but did not become universal till the fourteenth century. In the Greek Church trine immersion continued to be and is still practiced. In Ch. IX., the cup in the Lord's Supper is placed before the bread. This may indicate a change in the apostolic order of this sacrament, occasioned by a custom in the seventh or eighth century in the Greek Church, of dipping the bread in the wine and delivering both elements in a spoon. (Hist. Ch., P. Schaff, vol. ii., p. 517.)

In Ch. XV., it is said, "Now appoint for yourselves bishops.' The expression in the Ap. Constitutions is "ordain bishops;" in the Coptic Coll., "A bishop shall be ordained, who has been "chosen by all the people;" in the Ethiopic Coll., "A bishop shall be chosen by all the people"; and the people select a bishop and presbyter to lay hands on the head of him whom they (the people) have made bishop. The Greek word translated in the Ap. Const., ordain, occurs twice in the New Testament and in the new version is translated appoint. (Acts xxii. 14; xxvi. 16.) To appoint, or ordain, or choose a bishop were of the same significance in the early church. The people made the bishop, and a bishop (and some

times a presbyter) was requested by the people to sanction what they had done by the laying on of hands. Long after hierarchy had been established, "bishops and elders were only the superintending members of the church, its guides, but not its masters." (Hypp. and his Age, vol. ii., p. 131.)

The "Teaching of the twelve Apostles" carries us back to the close of the third or the beginning of the fourth century; particularly showing the simple mode of the Eastern churches in preparing young persons for baptism and communion. The ethical teaching of the first six chapters are a feeble echo of New Testament instruction, adapted to the intelligence of children and to the moral wants of the times; the liturgical and other directions regarding fasting, baptism, and the Lord's Supper, in some particulars, are confused, erroneous and unscriptural, and in other respects very simple and appropriate. Those chapters which speak of the ministry give some instruc tion suited to a time and country in which clerical tramps and begging ascetics were possibly too numerous; the only orders spoken of are bishops and deacons, showing perhaps that the instructions were designed in this respect for churches where only one elder or bishop was required; in city churches there were often several presbyters, from whom the people elected a presiding bishop, and the people selected a bishop to confirm their choice by the laying on of hands.

This book will be useful if it incites to a more careful study of the history of the early church, and a closer conformity to real apostolic teaching.

[NOTE.-Since the foregoing article was in type, a copy of the Journal of Christian Philosophy has been placed in the hands of the writer, in which are several learned and interesting articles on the same subject. If, in addition to the thorough researches of Prof. Harris in the sixth article, it were possible to procure a copy of the "Ethiopic Collection," of which the writer could find only a fragment; or of the copies of the Apostolic Canons referred to by Varrsleit in his "History of the Church of Alexandria," the identity of the "Teaching" with earlier copies in use might be clearly traced.]

ARTICLE VII.—MANUAL TRAINING FOR BOYS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS.*

AN old tradition of the Hohenzollern family requires that every son shall learn some handicraft. The present Crown Prince is a joiner; one of his sons, if I am not mistaken, is a bookbinder; and thus every member of that house who ascends the throne of Prussia possesses, in addition to his military and literary education, a purely manual education in some mechanical art.

If skill in joinery is thought essential to the education of a sovereign whose bank account is kept good by the income of estates and taxation, and the greater part of whose life is devoted to military, governmental, and ceremonial affairs, it would seem not extravagant to assume that a sovereign who earns his daily bread in the dull routine of industrial toil should be equipped with at least the rudiments of manual training. Yet it is only within a very few years that the question of supplying such an education to the fifty millions of sovereigns who rule this country has even been mooted; its practical realization, save on an experimental scale, is still in the future.

There is probably a good reason for this conservatism among our educators. Half a century ago the majority of the school children were the sons of farmers or small mechanics, who lived in the country towns. They attended school only a part of the year and were obliged to work with their parents the rest. In those days the family and the home made up what the school omitted. The boy was instructed by his father in whatever mechanical knowledge he himself possessed, while the girl gained, by assisting her mother, some acquaintance with

* The author takes pleasure in ackowledging his indebtedness to Mr. Dutton, Superintendent of Schools of New Haven, to Messrs. Camp and French, Principals of the Dwight and Skinner Grammar Schools, to Mr. Fox of the High School, to Professor Felix Adler and Mr. Bamberger of the Workingman's School in New York, and to President Walker, of the Institute of Technology, for their courtesy in giving him information and for valuable suggestions.

household duties. The common school supplied merely part of the child's education and did its work well, because it did not pretend to supply more than a part.

But the times have changed. The inhabitants of our cities, which in 1790 numbered only 3.3 per cent., and which in 1820 had risen to but 4.9 per cent., now form 22.5 per cent. of the population. The parents of a large proportion of our school children no longer live in the country, engaged in occupations in which each is his own master, but many of them live in crowded tenements in the cities and work in large factories, where they are called hands and count as merely human parts of the machines which they tend. Among this class of the population it is out of the question that the sons should get from their fathers any training whatever in the mechanical arts, while the girls must acquire but a very scanty knowledge of domestic economy from the pinched and cramped housekeeping carried on by their mothers.

It is a common experience that every advance in civilization creates a new difficulty which has to be overcome by another advance, and it is undoubtedly true that the improvements in production which result from the introduction of steam power, and of machinery, and from the massing and specialization of labor, so characteristic of our time, have produced serious defects in the training of large portions of our population. The supplementary education which children formerly received at home is put beyond the reach of a large percentage of them at the present day, and though the common schools themselves make no change in their range of studies, though in their methods they may even make great progress, yet the change of circumstances is such that the children no longer get the kind of training that they used to have, and that they need. The state, whether for good or evil, finds itself called upon to enlarge its duties, in order to supply the wants of the young which the family no longer meets. And while those new conditions of industrial life are pressing their claims for recognition, new theories of education and new methods of instruction are joining in the demand for a more physical and less abstract course of study. Thus the two interests, the peda gogic and the industrial, meet on a common footing to urge