freeze entirely, as the winds and tides always break the ice which is already formed; thus seas of that kind have, even in the midst of winter, a considerable open surface, which evaporates freely. The temperature of the sea surface may be so high that much more rain than snow falls even in winter. Let us take an example: The sea surface between the southwest of England and the south of Ireland has a temperature of above 50° F. even in January. Supposing a saturated stratum of air to rise from these seas, it would have cooled down to about 380.4 F. at an elevation of 4,000 feet, that is, at the level of the highest peaks of the British islands. The resulting precipitation will be rain and not snow. (Nature, XXV, p. 424.)

Woeikof discusses the influence of local topographical conditions on the average winter temperatures observed at meteorological stations, in Vol. XIV of the Journal of the Russian Chemical and Physical Societies. He shows from the Swiss and Siberian observations that the temperature of the air is often much colder in the valley than on the mountains, and that in general the annual range of temperatures is less on isolated mountains than the surrounding countries. These peculiarities must be allowed for, in order to obtain a true estimate of the distribution of temperatures. (Nature, XXVI, pp. 190 and 209.)

Nordenskjöld has published the scientific observations made on the Voyage of the Vega, which are made accessible to English readers by means of Leslie's translation, published by MacMillan & Co., 1881. The Vega wintered at 67° 4' 49" north and 173° 23' 2" west. In this locality the thickness of the ice was measured as follows:

E. D. Archibald, in some remarks on the cold weather of Europe in the spring of 1882, attributes this largely to the influence of floating ice reaching the lower latitudes of the North Atlantic Ocean. (He does not, however, make it apparent but that northerly winds may have been the common cause of the low temperatures and the abundant ice.) He adds, "Though I agree with Hann in attributing more importance to the tropical than to the polar area in influencing the general weather of these latitudes, I think it very probable, on theoretical grounds, that we are more relatively influenced by the latter area in summer and the former in winter, and that just as it has been inferred that the regular recurrence of periods of diminished temperature in

Europe is due to the regular movements of the ice in the polar area, so we may reasonably conclude that abnormal movements of ice, especially in the Spitzbergen area, are likely to produce periods of abnormal coolness, such as that which at present prevails. In any case the moral to be drawn, if we really do intend to solve the weather problem, is by all means, to have a meteorological station in Iceland, and endeavor to study the map, as we are fortunately able to do.in India, on a large scale, instead of merely confining our attention to the minute range of conditions we are able to observe within the limited area of these islands." (Nature, XXVI, p. 198.)

In a second paper Mr. Archibald states that the cold spring winds usually come from the east and north, whereby the movable ice causes a high pressure and a low temperature. (Nature, XXVI, p. 222.)

Mr. James B. Francis, president of the American Society of Civil Engineers, gave the results of his observations, during forty years, of anchor ice. "A frequent inconvenience in the use of water-power in cold climates is that peculiar form of ice called anchor or ground ice. It adheres to stones, gravel, wood, and other substances forming the beds of streams, the channels of conduits, and orifices through which water is drawn, sometimes raising the level of water-courses many feet by its accumulation on the bed, and entirely closing small orifices through which water is drawn for industrial purposes. I have been for many years in a position to observe its effects, and the conditions under which it is formed. The essential conditions are that the temperature of the water is at its freezing point, and that of the air below that point; the surface of the water must be exposed to the air, and there must be a current of water.

"The ice is formed in small needles on the surface, which would remain there and form a sheet, if the surface were not so much agitated that the water at the top and bottom are continually interchanging their places, and intermixing. When resting at the bottom the crystals unite by regelation, and anchor ice is formed a considerable distance down stream below where the ice needles first form." (Nature, July, 1881, XXIV, p. 302.)

R. Gordon, the executive engineer of the embankment works of the Irrawaddy, has published a valuable monograph on the hydrography of that river, and the hydraulic works. The book is, of course, mainly occupied with the subject of connection between height of water or total discharge and the peculiarities of the river, and the rainfall. Especially interesting is the series of seventy or eighty consecutive days of complete measurements of the discharge at three sites in the delta. Records of the floods of the Irrawaddy for past years are insufficient to deduce anything like periodic regularity that has been proven in some other rivers. (Nature, XXVI, p. 172.)

Professor Harlacher has constructed a current meter, which gives the velocities at any depth in the shortest possible time, making a con

tinuous record on a sheet of paper, if required. Full details of the apparatus are given in Nature, Vol. XXVI, p. 494, and in the Proceedings of the Institute of Civil Engincers.

Tillo has published in the Nautical Review (Morskoi Sbornik) an interesting paper on the slopes and ranges between high and low water in the rivers of European Russia. For the Volga the range is 12 feet at Astrachan, and the average range throughout the whole length of the river is 33.6 feet. For the Duna the range is 9 feet at Riga, and 25.2 feet on the average for the whole river. (Nature, XXVI, p. 543.)

Mr. G. H. Darwin states that a misprint in a tidal report of 1872 has affected all the reductions of tides since that time, and in place of repeating the laborious computations he endeavors to compute the maximum effect which this error can have produced. His memoir is said to have contained suggestions of a new method of procedure of the harmonic analysis of the tides of long periods. (Nature, XXVI, p. 465.) Yornol has published the chemistry of the Norwegian North Atlantic expedition, in which he discusses the quantity of air and carbonicacid gas, and of the salt in the sea water; his apparatus for obtaining samples at any depth was invented by Captain Wills. The apparatus for boiling out the gases was that recommended by Jacobsen, with the addition of a beautiful slide valve invented by Dr. Behrens. Ninetyfour samples of air extracted from water taken at various depths give the volume of oxygen varying between 33.7 and 36.7 for the service water. He finds the lowest oxygen 33.64, and the highest 34.14. The results of the "Challenger" observations were 35.01 and 32.35. (Nature, XXV, p. 338.)

Dr. Tomoe states, in reference to the effect of depth on the oxygen, "The proportion, which at the surface is 35.3 per cent., diminishes at first rapidly, then slowly, to 32.5 per cent. at a depth of 300 fathoms, after which it keeps constant." Buchanan remarks that the percentage of oxygen must depend largely upon the time elapsed since the water of the respective depths was in contact with the atmosphere. As to the carbonic acid Tomoe finds 52.78 milligrams per liter of water present in the carbonates, and 43.64 milligrams present in the bicarbonates contained in the sea water. He gives an elaborate table of the expansion of sea water with temperature. The quantity of solid residue in sea water is shown upon charts that clearly demonstrate the distribution of the water from the Atlantic and the Polar regions. In general, Tomoe's work must be recognized as giving a great impetus to the chemical study of sea water. (Nature, XXV, p. 411.)

d CLIMATE AND BIOLOGY.

Dr. T.L. Whitehead has published his researches based on fifty years' consecutive observation on the climate of Ventnor, in the Isle of Wight, and the diseases peculiar to the climate of that locality, thereby mak

ing important contributions to the work of the late Dr. Mont. (Nature, XXV, p. 34.)

Tyndall's essays on the floating matter of the air have been republished in convenient form, and should serve to stimulate research. In this important field meteorological observers can probably best promote the study of the relations of climate to disease by regarding or preserv ing daily results of observations upon atmospheric dust. (Nature, XXV, p. 6.)

Professor Frankland, in an interesting lecture on climate of town and country, explains the chief things affecting climate, such as the direct sunshine, and especially the fact that the warmth of the air, as distinguished from the sunshine, depends, first, upon the nature of the surface of the land and the presence of the ocean, and, secondly, upon the absorption by the atmosphere, by invisible aqueous vapor, by clouds, fog, dust, and smoke. He especially dwelt upon the nature of London smoke fogs due to the imperfect burning of bituminous coal, and in ordinary grates rather than in the factory furnaces. He says that were aqueous vapor alone in the air it would never produce fog, but condense at once to large particles and at once fall as rain; when, however, dust or smoke particles are present in the air the minute spherules of fog are immediately formed around them as nuclei. He thinks that a law forbidding the importation of bituminous coal, and requiring the use of either coke or smokeless coal or gas, is the only method of preventing the London fogs that seriously injure the health of the inhabitants. (Nature, XXVI, p. 382.)

Cyon communicates to the Paris Academy the results of experiments on the action of high atmospheric pressure on the animal organism. He finds that oxygen is not a special poison for the organism. Animals die at high atmospheric pressure simply because the carbonic acid (the chief excitant of the vasomotor and respiratory centers), diminishes considerably the circulation and respiration, stopping the former because of too great lowering of blood pressure, and the latter because of apnea. The heart-beats are accelerated for the same reasons; the oxygen increases the action of the accelerating nerves, while the moderating action of the pneumogastric nerves is lessened through failure of carbonic acid. (Nature, XXV, p. 428.)

J. E. Clark states that since 1878 observations have been regularly made at thirty stations in Great Britain on the first appearance of buds, flowers, &c., of a selected series of thirty flowers. The detailed results have been published in the Natural History Journal. The averages for all these 900 observations of thirty plants at thirty stations give an accurate method of comparing the climates of the respective years. These averages are as follows, reckoning by days from January 1 onward: For 1878, 93; 1879, 115; 1880, 103; 1881, 111; mean of all, 105.3. He concludes that the weather during a given period is of less effect than that of the preceding months. It is to be earnestly recommended to amateur

meteorologists and lovers of botany that they keep a close and extensive record of the budding and blossoming of plants and buds in their neighborhood. (Nature, XXV, p. 553.)

Dr. Church communicates to the Royal Horticultural Society the results of experiments he has had made at Cirencester during the last fifteen years to ascertain the amount of salt in the rain brought by autumnal gales, especially from the southwest. He found from 5 to 7 grains per gallon, while the ordinary amount was only 5 grains. The average winter amount was but slightly in excess of the average summer quantity. He noticed that in Oakley Park one side of the trees was severely injured, and that, if no rain followed for a few days after the gale, the salt sparkled on the trees, even at a distance of thirty-five miles from the sea. The salt abstracted the moisture from the leaf-cells and formed a condensed solution, so that the leaf became completely dried up, and perished. Mr. McLachlan added that salt had been observed on windows at Lewisham, as at Croydon, and elsewhere. Sir J. D. Hooker remarked that Dalton was the first to record a similar fact at the beginning of this century. With regard to beeches withstanding the gale better than oaks, as mentioned at the last meeting, it was elicited that they were unhurt at Kew and Valewood, Haselmere, but at Cirencester, in Dorsetshire, and Cornwall, they suffered severely. Mr. Blackmoor exhibited foliage of pears, &c., from Teddington, some of which was quite unhurt; of other trees growing adjacent to them the leaves were much injured. Vines and peaches showed similar differences. He suggested that it could not be salt in this case. The opinion generally entertained was that such discrimination was due to the trees being relatively hardy and less hardy. (Nature, XXVI, 191.)

Rev. G. Henslow at the recent meeting of the Horticultural Society gave an account of the progress he had made in compiling statistics for a report on the meteorological phenomena of severe winters, and the consequent injury to plants. He had obtained particulars of severe winters from A. D. 220 to 1880; but those during which destruction of and injuries to plants had been specially recorded were the following eight: 1851-52, 1852-53, 1859-60-61, 1864-65, 1878-79, 1879-'80, 1880-'81. He had collected all the information he had at present been able to find with reference to these winters, and had drawn up first a short account of the principal meteorological phenomena of the year preceding each winter, as well as of the winter itself, as the behavior of a plant under frost so much depends upon its previous condition; in each case his tables give details of injuries to and losses of plant over as many places in the British Isles as possible. The importance of registering meteorological phenomena and the losses in several winters lay in the fact that the conditions of the winters respectively differed in many ways from one another. The consequence was that the immediate cause of plants succumbing to frost was not always the same. There would be an introduction, dealing with several interesting mat