The Maccabean struggle Conclusions During the century and a half following the death of Alexander the Jews of Palestine were in turn courted or conquered by the Ptolemies of Egypt or by the Seleucid rulers of Syria. Finally, about 200 B.C., they came During the next half century Greek under the permanent control of Syria. The three great crises that have left their indelible stamp upon the Psalter are (1) the destruction of Jerusalem in 586, (2) the seventy years of discouragement and petty persecution which followed the disillusionment of those who rebuilt the second temple, and (3) the bitter Maccabean struggle. The brighter, more joyous periods were (1) the few short years between 520 and 516 B.C. when the temple was being rebuilt, (2) the period of hopefulness and rejoicing following the work of Nehemiah in 445, (3) the comparatively calm though less joyous Greek period, and (4) the confident, exultant, warlike age inaugurated by the brilliant victories of Judas Maccabeus. THE STRUCTURE AND HISTORY OF THE PSALTER Psalter THE Psalter in its present form is divided into five divisions or books. The five great These are 1-41, 42-72, 73-89, 90-106, and 107–150. Each of these divisions divisions is marked by a concluding doxology. Psalm 150 in itself constitutes the of the closing doxology. The first three divisions are natural and apparently mark successive stages in the early growth of the Psalter. The division between 106 and 107 is arbitrary, for Psalms 104-107 are in theme a literary unit. This fivefold division is the work either of the final editor of the Psalter or else of some later reviser. Its aim was probably to divide the Psalter into five divisions corresponding to the five books of the law. It emphasizes, however, the fact that the Psalter is made up of smaller collections and that, like the book of Proverbs, it grew gradually as the result of bringing different collections together. Chapter 1, which constitutes a general introduction, like the introduction to the book of Proverbs (1-9), is probably one of the latest additions to the book. Its didactic character reflects the thought of the later wise and of their successors the scribes. The two collec Davidic The oldest collection of psalms in the Psalter is clearly the so-called first Davidic collection found in 2-41. Psalm 10, which lacks the title To David, was once the second half of an acrostic of which the first is found tions in 9. The title of Psalm 33 is also lacking except in the Greek version. Its contents indicate that it was later inserted in this earlier collection. Another Davidic collection is found in 51-72. At the close of this collection is found the significant note, following an elaborate doxology: The prayers of David, the son of Jesse, are ended. This postscript lends force to the suggestion, made long ago by Ewald, that the first Davidic collection was once followed immediately by the second contained in 51-72. If this reconstruction be adopted it also solves another problem, for at present Psalm 50, which is dedicated to Asaph, is separated from the other Asaph psalms in 73-83 by the second Davidic collection (51-72). This restoration brings together the two great collections of psalms attributed to the temple singers, the sons of Korah and the sons of Asaph. The general character and contents of the second Davidic collection confirms the conclusion that they come from the same general point of view and from a little later period than those in the first collection. date The evidence is reasonably convincing that the majority of the sixty-two Their psalms in these Davidic collections (2-41, 51-72) were written during the first half of the Persian period or earlier and that the first collection was made soon after the work of Nehemiah and the priestly reforms associated The Korahite psalms The psalms of the sons of Korah The Hallel psalms with Ezra. The literary style of these psalms is vigorous and free from the Aramaisms and artificialities which characterize many of the psalms in the latter part of the Psalter. They contain few liturgical formulas and most of them are written from the individual or class point of view. In general they reflect the events following the Babylonian exile and the life of a poor, struggling community surrounded by merciless oppressors. The teachings of the pre-exilic prophets, and especially Jeremiah (e. g., Ps. 16 and 39), have made a profound impression upon the minds of the psalmists. The chief problems are those of Lamentations and of Isaiah 40-66, with which writings these psalms have many points of contact. They reveal the sufferings and the hopes of the afflicted during the days preceding the appearance of Nehemiah as well as the confidence and optimism that burst out after his advent. The editor or editors who collected them were probably inspired to do so by the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem, the revival of the Judean community, and the extension of the temple service which resulted from the work of that great Jewish layman. The fact that Psalm 14 is reproduced in 53 and 311-3 in 711-3 suggests that the second collection, 51-72, was made independently and a little later, possibly near the close of the Persian or early in the Greek period. Psalms 42-49 bear the superscription, To the Sons of Korah. Inasmuch as these were the chief guild of singers at the Jerusalem temple during the middle and latter part of the Persian period, and were later supplanted by the guilds of Asaph, Heman, and Jeduthun, it is probable that the collection of Korahite psalms comes from the same period. This dating is confirmed by their contents. The problem of innocent suffering still rests heavily upon the psalmists, but the earlier sense of guilt is lacking, even as in the contemporary prophecy of Joel. The literary style is vigorous and highly poetic. The liturgical form as well as the title of these psalms indicates that most of them were written for use in the temple service. The eight Korahite psalms (42-49) were probably added to the earlier Davidic collections about the beginning of the Greek period. In the second half of the Psalter the indications of historical growth are indistinct. The titles point to the work of a final editor who combined many smaller collections. The third general division opens with a collection of eleven psalms, 73–83, to which should be added Psalm 50, which in the process of editorial revision had been separated from them. These are all dedicated to the sons of Asaph, who, we may infer from the references in Chronicles, came into prominence about 250 B.C. In this collection are found certain psalms, as, for example, 74, 79, and 83, which clearly voice the feelings of the Jews while they were being ground down under the cruel heel of Antiochus Epiphanes (167-164 B.C.). Scattered through the latter part of the Psalter are two groups of so-called Hallel psalms (104-118 and 136-150), each of which is introduced by the superscription Hallelujah, which may be interpreted: Give praise to Yah. Their contents as well as their title indicate that they were written for liturgical use. Psalms 104-107 are in reality one psalm describing Jehovah's rulership of the world and leadership of his people. Psalm 104 de THE STRUCTURE AND HISTORY OF THE PSALTER scribes the creation, 105 the exodus, 106 Israel's early history, and 107 the later restoration. Psalms 111 and 112 constitute an acrostic. In the later Jewish ritual Psalms 113 and 114 were chanted before the Passover meal and 115-118 at its close. In the great Hallel psalm, 136, the same refrain is repeated twenty-six times. Psalms 146-149, like 150, are in reality long doxologies adapted to use in the synagogue and temple service. These Hallel psalms probably come from the latter part of the Greek and the first part of the Maccabean periods. Several of them are quoted by the Chronicler, indicating that they were probably in existence as early as 250 B.C. although they may not then have been incorporated in the Psalter. cent Psalms 120-134 are a group of songs of ascent or pilgrim psalms. With The psalms the exception of Psalm 126, they are all written in the same five-beat of asmeasure. They are characterized by original and bold figures of speech and by an intense love for Jerusalem and the temple. As a rule, their spirit is joyous and hopeful. The didactic note is strong and their point of view is in general that of the Pharisees. They probably antedate the fierce Maccabean struggle and come from the latter part of the Greek period. As their title implies, they voice the feelings of the pilgrims as they resorted to the temple at their annual feasts. Even as the revival of the Palestinian community, following the work of Nehemiah, inspired the first collection of psalms (2-41), so the Maccabean victories and the restoration of the temple service appear to have furnished the incentive to make new collections of psalms and to complete the canon of the Psalter. This concluding work was in all probability done during the peaceful, prosperous reign of Simon (143-135 B.C.). Contemporary records indicate that it was an age in which many new psalms were written and when great attention was given to the development of the temple ritual. This tendency was encouraged by the aged Simon, as is stated in I Maccabees 1412, 14, 15: He made peace in the land, And Israel rejoiced with great joy. Everyone sat under his own vine and fig tree, And there was no one to make them afraid. He was full of zeal for the law, And every lawless and wicked person he banished. He made the sanctuary glorious, And multiplied the vessels of the temple. He probably also multiplied the temple singers and elaborated the song service. Israel had good cause to sing to Jehovah a new song, for he had crowned the afflicted with victory. The Psalter closes with their song of thanksgiving: Let the faithful exult in glory, Let them sing for joy on their beds. Let the high praises of God be in their mouth, The completion of the Psalter And a two-edged sword in their hand, Their nobles with fetters of iron, To execute on them the judgment written; It is an honor for all his faithful ones. (Ps. 1495-9.) Thus the evidence is conclusive that the Psalter has a history as long and complex as the Old Testament itself. Certain of its older poems may come from the days of David, about 1000 B.C. Its later psalms breathe the warlike spirit of the Maccabean age. It represents the growth of at least eight centuries and the work of fully one hundred poets. Back of it lie two millenniums of Semitic religious history; but the psalms themselves, with few exceptions, come from the four centuries and a half that began with the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C. They record the inspired insight, the dauntless courage, and the profound spiritual experiences of the noble souls who faced the cruel persecutions and the great crises of the Persian, Greek, and Maccabean periods. Born in stress and struggle, they have a unique message and meaning for all who are in the stream of life. |