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PREFACE.

In the present volume of the ANNUAL CYCLOPÆDIA, the eighth of the New Series, some improvements have been introduced which it is hoped will add to its attractiveness and usefulness. The subjects treated have been subdivided with unusual care, and the use of full-face type for the heads and sub-heads brings them out more distinctly, and renders it easier for the reader to turn at once to the exact piece of information which he seeks. Increased attention has been given to illustration. The accounts of the wars in Egypt and Tonquin are each accompanied by a full-page map; another full-page map exhibits the annual rainfall in every part of the United States, and a colored map shows the new time-system recently adopted; there is a large view of the Cantilever Bridge at Niagara, one of the German National Monument on the Niederwald, and one of the new Capitol at Albany; the improvements in the use of gas and electricity are fully illustrated; and some strange and important discoveries in the aberration of sound as used for fog-signals are represented by curious diagrams. Portraits of the new Archbishop of Canterbury, Speaker Carlisle, Peter Cooper, Gustave Doré, General Gordon, Hicks Pasha, Mario the singer, General Sheridan, Alexander H. Stephens, Wagner the composer, and other celebrities, appear in their proper places.

The report of the proceedings of Congress has been made unusually full, as a means of ready reference to several subjects of national interest which will be discussed in the Presidential canvass of 1884.

A brief summary of the events of the year, in chronological order, is a new feature, serving to refresh the reader's memory as to numerous occurrences which could not be treated at length in a work like this. The paper on the "Composition and Nutritive Value of Foods," and that on the "United States Fish Commission," with instructions for the propagation and preservation of fish, will be found especially instructive and practical.

Mr. Alphonso A. Hopkins, Prohibition candidate for Governor of New York in 1882, gives a full history of prohibition, from the earliest times to the present day-a subject that is rapidly making for itself a place in political and legislative affairs; while the editor of the Salvation Army's publications gives an authoritative account of that strange movement in the religious world. The recent advances in chemistry, surgery, and other sciences are noted, and the present condition of each of the great denominations of Christians is set forth.

The articles "Failures in Business," "Financial Review of 1883," and "United States Finances," show clearly what has taken place in the monetary world. These and the numerous other articles, most of which, being subjects treated every year, need not be specially enumerated, constitute substantially the world's chronicle for 1883. Those who have just lived that year amid the crowding occurrences of our hurrying age, will realize, as they glance over the record, how letters in their simplest and humblest capacity, if they can not bring back the past, at least may double memory, and thereby lengthen life.

An index to the eight volumes (including the present) of the New Series will be found at the close of the book. An effort has been made to give it sufficient fullness to render all the information easily accessible, and yet not to overload it with needless entries that obscure the very things the reader is looking for.

In its proper place will be found a portrait and brief sketch of the late William J. Tenney, who edited this work from its beginning, in 1861, up to and including the volume for 1882.

NEW YORK, April 11, 1884.

THE

ANNUAL CYCLOPÆDIA.

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AFGHANISTAN. Abdurrahman Khan, since he was set up by the British as Amir of Afghanistan, has struggled vigorously to consolidate the Afghan state and maintain his rule over the loose league of turbulent clans which form the Afghan nation. After the withdrawal of the British army from Afghanistan, there was no hope of preserving a close control over Abdurrahman, for as a puppet of England he would immediately become impossible. As the British nominee, he was left in an exceedingly difficult position. The policy of the Imperial Government was, to attempt no dictation and make no exhibition of British power in Afghanistan, nor even inquire too closely into the loyalty and friendship of the Amir, yet to supply him liberally with money and war materials, at the expense of the Indian revenue, so as to enable him to buy or compel the submission of his vassals. "A strong, peaceful, and friendly Afghanistan was the aim of this policy, the friendship to be won by large gifts and the renunciation of British claims to domination, which would encourage the Afghans to apply their united strength to resist Russian encroachments. Abdurrahman gained possession of the fortress of Herat, which is the bulwark of Afghanistan on the west, by a prompt military movement. His energy, or that of his lieutenants, broke up the seemingly formidable power of his cousin and rival, Ayub. Yet the undivided authority of the Amir was not established in llerat, nor can the Heratis be counted upon in future complications to remain true either to their allegiance to the Amir, or to their political union with Southern Afghanistan. Gen. Abdul Kudus Khan, who took possession of Herat in the autumn of 1881, after the defeat of Ayub, established himself there as unlimited ruler, and by the mildness of his government won the affections of the Herati people. Abdurrahman quickly re-established the sovereignty of the Amir in Turkistan, or Northern Afghanistan, as soon as he crossed

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the Oxus. This great province, embracing the rich region on the northern slope of the Hindoo Koosh, was given into the hands of the Amir's cousin, Isa Khan, as a reward for his fidelity to the cause of Abdurrahman while he was still living as an exile in Samarcand. Isa Khan objected to the appointment of his former subordinate, Kudus Khan, to the governorship of Herat, which post he desired for his brother, Mohsin. Abdurrahman would have been glad to please his cousins and displace the dangerous officer who had implanted himself too firmly in Herat, but he dared not put his authority to the test. This caused an alienation between the Amir and his viceroy in Turkistan. Both the northern divisions of the country are thus ruled by governors who are able and ready to defy the commands of the Amir. The advancing influence of Russia finds there a field which the misdirected efforts and sacrifices of the British have helped to prepare for it.

In the southern parts of the country Abdurrahman has been but little more successful in consolidating his power. In Cabool he rules in state with the aid of British gold, and Candahar he holds with a tolerably firm hand. But the maintenance of civil order in garrisoned towns is a different thing from keeping in subjection and restraint the Afghan people, which is composed of warlike clans who have not yet passed out of the tribal organization of society, and who will accept none of the burdens and pay none of the duties of civil government, except to unite in repelling a foreign enemy. In 1883 the Shinwarris, a tribe in habiting the eastern side of the Sufed Koh range, rebelled against the authority of the Amir. Abdurrahman sent a force to reduce them to subjection, but the military operations accomplished nothing except to spread disaffection, and the rebellious agitation extended to the neighboring clans, the Afridis and Momunds. The Government of British India came to the aid of the Amir with arms and

ammunition. Some of these were intercepted

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