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tributed to the "Speaker's Commentary," has written much for periodicals, and has published in book-form "Work, Friendship, Worship," three sermons (London, 1872); "BoyLife" (1874); "Singleheart" (1877); "Living Theology" (1878); and "The Cathedral in the Life and Work of the Church" (1879).

BERNARD AFFAIR, The. See BELGIUM. BLACK, Jeremiah Sullivan, an American jurist and statesinan, born in the Glades, Somerset co., Pa., Jan. 10, 1810; died at his home in York, Pa., Aug. 19, 1883. His ancestry was partly Irish and Scotch. James Black, his grandfather, came to America from the north of Ireland, and settled in Somerset co., Pa., where, in 1778, Henry Black, father of Jeremiah, was born, and where he lived. Henry Black was a man of note in his day.

Jeremiah's early education was obtained at school near his home, on his father's farm, and he displayed in youth a decided turn for intellectual and literary pursuits. He studied law, was taken into the office of Chauncey Forward, a prominent lawyer in Somerset co., and was admitted to the bar in 1831. In 1838 he married a daughter of Mr. Forward. After an active and successful practice of eleven years, he was raised to the bench. In politics he was a Democrat, claiming to be after the Jeffersonian pattern, and he was nominated, in 1842, by a Democratic Governor, for President Judge of the district in which he lived, This post he held for nine years. In 1851 Judge Black was elected to be one of the Supreme Court judges of Pennsylvania. After serving the short term, three years, he was re

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elected, in 1854, for a full term, fifteen years. On the accession of James Buchanan to the presidency, in 1857, Judge Black became Attorney-General. He was very industrious and successful, in connection with Edwin M. Stanton, in protecting the interests of the nation against false claimants to grants of land made by the Mexican Government to settlers in California before that country came under the control of the United States. When the secession crisis arrived, Judge Black showed himself to be considerably in advance of the weak and vacillating President. Buchanan held that there was no authority which could coerce a State, if it chose to secede and set up as an independent government for itself. His Attorney-General was clear that it was the absolute duty of the Government to put down insurrection anywhere and everywhere, under whatever plea or pretense it might be attempted to be justified, and that the Constitation contained no provision for a dissoIntion of the Union by secession or in any other wise. Gen. Cass having resigned as Secretary of State in December, 1860, Judge Black was appointed to fill the vacancy, Edwin M. Stanton taking the post of Attorney-General. He occupied this position during the remainder of Buchanan's administration, and it is claimed, in his behalf, by those intimately acquainted with the history of that critical period, that he was mainly instrumental in saving the Government from absolute disruption and falling into the hands of the secessionists.

In March, 1861, when Abraham Lincoln beeame President, Judge Black retired from public life. He was appointed United States Supreme Court Reporter, but soon resigned that position, and entered again upon the practice of law at his home, near York, Pa. He was engaged in several prominent lawsuits during the last twenty years of his life, and retained his vigor and professional skill even to the close of his career. The Vanderbilt will contest, the Milliken case, and the McGarrahan claim, were among the more noted cases in which he was engaged. Besides more strictly professional duties, Judge Black found time for contributing to current literature. He furnished an account of the Erie railway litigation, argued the third-term question in magazine articles, and had a lively newspaper discussion with Jefferson Davis.

Judge Black generally enjoyed good health, but an operation having become necessary, it was successfully performed, yet superinduced pyæmia, which was the immediate cause of his death. His religions views were those of the Campbellites, or Disciples of Christ. He left a wife, two sons, and two daughters, these last being married. One of his sons was elected Lieutenant-Governor of Pennsylvania, in 1882; the other resides in Texas and is a lawyer.

BLAKE, Hon. Edward, a Canadian lawyer and statesman, born in the county of Middlesex,

Ontario, in October, 1833. He is of Irish extraction, being descended, on his father's side, from the Blakes of Cashelgrove, Galway, and on his mother's from William Hume, M. P. for Wicklow, who during the rebellion of 1798 was shot by a party of rebels of whom he was in pursuit. William Hume Blake, his father, emigrated to Canada immediately after his marriage, and took up his residence near Peterborough. He was accompanied by his brother, a clergyman of the Episcopal Church; and on the appointment of the latter to a charge in the county of Middlesex, both families migrated westward, and settled in what was then an almost unbroken forest. Here Edward Blake was born, in a log-cabin; but the family removed to Toronto when he was a year old, and there his father became an eminent lawyer. The son followed, professionally, very closely in his footsteps, as did also his younger brother, Samuel Hume Blake, who never entered public life, but was raised at a very early age to the post of Vice-Chancellor in the court over which his father formerly presided.

Edward Blake was educated at Upper Canada College and University College, Toronto, and graduated in the University of Toronto. He was called to the bar in 1856, and rose with extraordinary rapidity to the very foremost position as a chancery practitioner; and during the ten years which elapsed before confederation took place he had gained such a position that he becaine, in 1867, a candidate for election at once to the House of Commons of the Dominion and to the Legislative Assembly of Ontario. In both positions he astonished even his most intimate friends by his extraordinary capacity for work. He was chosen leader of the Opposition in the Ontario Assembly very soon after it began its course, and during the whole of the first parliamentary term, though at the head of a small minority of the House, he kept the ministry almost constantly at a disadvantage. He frequently introduced bills which his legal experience and political sagacity suggested, and many of these were voted down, at the instance of the Government, only to be taken up afterward and carried through as Government measures. the principles which Mr. Blake most persistently kept before the public was the obligation resting on the Government to give the people's representatives as much detailed knowledge as possible of the destination of public moneys before they are voted by Parliament. This very principle was the final issue on which the Sandfield-Macdonald Government was defeated in 1871, and it therefore became the most important plank in the platform of its successor. Of the bills first introduced by Mr. Blake, and afterward taken up by the Government, was that which provided for the trial of contested elections by the courts instead of by partisan committees of Parliament. This system came into operation for the first time in the Prov

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ince after the general election of 1871, with the result of unseating an unusually large number of the members-elect. While many of the seats were vacant from this cause, the Legislature was convened, and Mr. Blake asked from it and obtained a severe condemnation of the Government for its policy of voting a large sum in aid of railways, without first specifying the roads to be aided and the amount to be granted to each. This censure of the administration led to a change of Government, and Mr. Blake took office as Premier. He kept it, however, for only a single session, as an act passed by the Dominion Parliament to abolish dual membership rendered it necessary for him to choose between the two positions which he had filled for four years.

His most noted speech in the Ontario Assembly was one in support of a resolution respecting the shooting of Scott by the Red river insurgents, under the leadership of Louis Riel, in 1870. The setting in motion of a new Constitution naturally gave rise to some friction, and not a few direct conflicts of opinion. The Constitution embodied in the British North America Act is distinctly federal in form, but it would, at the outset, have been easy to impart to it in practice a tendency toward centralization. Against every manifestation of such a tendency Mr. Blake steadily set his face. His summing up of the evidence against Sir John Macdonald, in the great "Pacific Scandal" case in 1873, decided the fate of the Conservative ministry.

He took office as a member of the Mackenzie ministry, without a portfolio, but he soon withdrew to devote himself to his private businees and the recuperation of his health. He afterward held, under Mr. Mackenzie, from 1875 to 1877, the office of Minister of Justice, and in that capacity initiated and carried through a mass of important legislation. It fell to his lot also to discuss, by correspondence with the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Lord Carnarvon, a somewhat important point in connection with the relation of Canada to the mother-country. Long after the Red river insurrection was repressed, the final disposal of the chief insurgents continued to be a difficult question, owing to uncertainty as to what had been really promised to them. Lord Dufferin undertook to cut the Gordian knot by an exercise of the royal prerogative under his "instructions," without taking the advice of his ministers. A request was then sent to the Imperial Government to amend the instructions, so that thereafter the prerogative of pardon, like all other prerogatives, should be exercisable by the Governor only on the advice of his ministers. To this Lord Carnarvon demurred, but Mr. Blake's potent arguments at last convinced the imperial authorities of the absurdity and danger of leaving the way open to a foolish Governor to create serious trouble between the two countries, and the obnoxious instruction was modified as desired.

The general election of 1878 was disastrous to the Mackenzie administration, and among other defeated candidates was Mr. Blake, who had sat for South Bruce for two Parliaments. He remained out of the Commons for one session, and, when he returned to it as member for West Durham, he was chosen leader of the Liberal party.

Mr. Blake has always enjoyed in an eminent degree the confidence of his fellow-members of the Law Society of the Province, of which corporation he has for years been the presiding and chief executive officer. He has been equally fortunate in securing the suffrages of his fellow-graduates of the Provincial University, who have repeatedly elected him by acclamation to the position of Chancellor.

BLOOD. The Mechanism of the Arrest of Hæmcrrhage. Recent investigation of the blood has led to the discovery of a new element in its composition of great practical importance, in the shape of small granular bodies differing greatly from both the red and the white bloodcorpuscles. Andral, by examining blood with the microscope, either pure or mixed, as it came from the vein, with one seventh of its weight of sulphate of sodium, found that all the fibrin was held in suspension under the form of little white corpuscles mm. in diameter. To these corpuscles filaments were added at the moment of solidification. Many other observers, also, have seen in the blood in process of coagulation these little pale granules, either single or agminated, and the filaments of fibrin. In 1873 M. Ranvier also pronounced on the nature of these little bodies. "It is probable, without being proved," he said, "that these angular granulations which exist in the blood are little masses of fibrin, and that they become the centers of coagulation, as a crystal of sulphate of sodium placed in a solution of the same salt becomes the center of crystallization."

Such was the state of our knowledge upon this subject when, in 1877, M. Hayem announced that there existed in the blood peculiar little elements having the singular property of undergoing instant alteration when they came from the body, more especially when they came in contact with a foreign substance. As these elements are destined to become the red corpuscles of the blood, he proposed for them the name of hæmatoblasts, believing them to be the same as those already described by other observers, only more or less altered in appearance. He also believed that the process of coagulation was intimately connected with the modifications of these elements. In works which he published from 1877 to 1881 he insisted upon the viscosity which the hæmatoblasts acquired when they were no longer in their normal condition, adhering then to one another, and to any foreign body with which they came in contact. It is only after having undergone a manifest metamorphosis, of which this state of viscosity is the first degree, that

they become the principal points of departure and of attachment of the filaments of fibrin. He also discovered that all the conditions known as having an effect in retarding or preventing coagulation also prevented these alterations of the hæmatoblasts, and vice versa.

Pursuing this study, he was led to examine the manner in which the flow of blood resulting from the wound of a vessel is arrested. He believed that the hæmatoblasts took an active part in the process. In the case of a wound of a blood-vessel, the hæmorrhage, at first rapid, gradually decreases, and then ceases. To explain this favorable result, the contraction of the wall of the vessel has been invoked. This is real, and even energetic, for arteries of medium and small caliber, but almost nothing for the veins. But this contraction can not of itself close the wound. It is evident that, in the arrest of hæmorrhage apparently by the formation of a clot, there is something peculiar, the mechanism of which needs explanation. In fact, during a hæmorrhage, the blood which passes between the lips of the wound in the blood-vessel is always new, and when collected in a vessel it is transformed into a gelatinous mass only after several minutes; why, then, does it form a solid plug between the lips of a wound, which soon opposes an obstacle to all issue of blood? Upon this point M. Hayem has endeavored to throw some new light. After exposing the jugular vein of a dog, a small wound is made in the vessel, and the hæmorrhage is allowed to cease spontaneously; immediately after, a ligature is applied to the peripheral extremity of the vessel. It is easy then to draw from the little wound a clot shaped like a nail, the point of which penetrates into the lumen of the vessel, the head resting upon the outer wall of the vein. By immediately placing this coagulum in a liquid which fixes the elements of the blood, its different parts may be examined with the microscope. The point and central portion are grayish, viscous, and composed of partly granular and partly amorphous matter. The granulations are composed of enormous masses of hæmatoblasts already altered, but still very distinct one from the other, while the amorphous matter results from the confluence into one common and coherent mass of the hæmatoblasts which have undergone the greatest change. The head of the nail, which is red on the exterior, contains in its center a prolongation of the viscous hæmatoblastic matter, and at the periphery the fibrillary ineshes hold a great number of red corpuscles. In all the central, and, properly speaking, obstructive part, there are very few white corpuscles. It is, therefore, evident that the fibrin is added to a central nucleus composed almost entirely of hæmatoblasts. The formation of this nucleus may be studied in the mesentery of a living frog under the microscope. After having brought into the field of the microscope a vein of medium caliber, with transparent walls, an incomplete

section of the vessel is made with the point of a fine scalpel. An abundant hæmorrhage is produced, and, for a few seconds, nothing is observable but a mass of blood. Soon the blood flows more slowly, and is confined by a crown of elements attached to each other and adhering to the wall of the vessel. A few moments later the orifice of the wound is surmounted by a sort of whitish excrescence, through the elements of which the red bloodcorpuscles insinuate themselves with difficulty. Far from being formed, as several observers have said, of the white blood-corpuscles, the wall consists of hæmatoblasts which have been retained during the flow of blood. At the moment when the hæmorrhage ceases, these have already become altered, and, continuing the observation, they may be seen to undergo all the changes described by the author.

The obstructing hæmatoblastic button holds. only an insignificant number of white bloodcorpuscles. These are spherical, smooth, not adhesive, for by continuing the observation for a few moments they may be seen to separate themselves from the mass of hæmatoblasts by means of their own inherent contractility. They do not appear to participate at all in the arrest of the flow, and they still possess their physiological properties and normal anatomical character, while the hæmatoblasts of the obstructing plug are already greatly modified. In this process the edges of the wound seem to play the part of foreign bodies. It is easy, moreover, to determine how the hæmatoblasts act with regard to a foreign body directly introduced into the circulation. By means of a slightly curved needle, carrying a thread of silver or platinum, the external jugular vein of an animal (dog) is pierced in such a way that about one centimetre of the cord remains within the lumen of the vessel. When the operation is well done, hardly a drop of blood will escape from either the point of entrance or exit of the needle. After two or three minutes-a length of time sufficient in the dog, in which the hæmatoblasts are very vulnerable

the segment of the vein traversed by the cord is separated by the aid of two ligatures, the first placed on the peripheral end, the second on the central. The trunk of the vein containing the thread is immediately detached and opened after being plunged into a liquid which fixes the elements of the blood. Already the thread is surrounded by a grayish mass, a little reddish here and there, composed of innumerable hæmatoblasts, the more readily recognizable the shorter the time that the thread has been in contact with the circulating fluid. When the thread is left for a longer time in the vessel, and the muff which surrounds it has become more voluminous, the constitution of the muff is entirely analogous to that of the hæmostatic nail already described.

The hæmatoblasts thus play an important role in the mechanism of the arrest of hæmorrhage. These elements are alterable to the

extent that, coming in contact with the edges of a wound, they become adhesive, as when in contact with a foreign body. In accumulating little by little around the open orifice of a vessel, they form there an obstacle at first insufficient; then, the first hæmatoblasts being arrested, they retain in their turn those which issue with the blood coming constantly in contact with them; the orifice of the wound retracts little by little, until finally it is completely closed by a solid and fixed plug. The other elements of the blood and the formation of fibrin only participate in this process in a secondary and accessory manner. The blood, then, contains within itself a powerful hæmostatic agent, and, were it possible to remove from the normal blood all of the hæmatoblasts, the wound of a vessel would cause a hæmorrhage which would have no tendency to cease spontaneously.

These experimental facts have a practical application of importance. All foreign bodies alter and retain the hæmatoblasts, and in this way is easily explained the formation of intravascular clots in living persons by the contact of diseased points in the cardiac or vascular walls. In the same way may be understood the hæmostatic action of foreign substances brought into contact with the surface of the wound, notably those of a pulverulent or spongy nature. According to the experiments of M. Ilayem the modifications of the hæmatoblasts are favored by an elevation of temperature, and are extremely active at a temperature a little above that of the body. He asks if this may not explain the good effects of hot-water injections and applications in the treatment of hæmorrhages. For, to the action of water, which is in itself effective upon the hæmatoblasts, is added that of heat. Again, for blood to cease flowing it must contain hæmatoblasts, and these must be impressionable to the contact of foreign bodies. In animals like the horse, whose blood is only slightly coagulable, the hæmatoblasts are modified with comparative slowness. Again, these elements may undergo alterations in number and quality in cases of disease, and it may be concluded that in certain cases the constitution

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of the blood itself may be a predisposing cause of hæmorrhage following the least vascular injury. That singular malady known as hæmophilia, the victims of which are known in popular language as "bleeders," is perhaps precisely the consequence of a particular state of the hæmatoblasts.

A practical example of the importance of this view may be given. The case is one of extreme and frequently repeated bleeding from the nose, and the patient is at the point of death from the loss of blood. For thirty years the patient has been subject at intervals to such attacks. On examining the blood, the fact of the relative rarity of the hæmatoblasts, and of their feeble vulnerability, is apparent - the changes which they undergo out of the organism occurring much more slowly than natural. It is suspected, therefore, that the bleeding, which has lasted for three weeks, and which returns whenever the plug is removed from the nose for a few hours, is due to these changes; and that by transfusing into the patient a certain quantity of normal blood containing active hæmatoblasts, the condition may be modified to advantage. A small quantity of venous blood is, therefore, injected into the patient's veins, and the nose-bleed is immediately and definitely arrested. The plugs are removed, but the bleeding does not return. It is evident that the conveying into the blood of the patient new and healthy blood from another body has effected a cure, and the active element in the cure is probably the hæmatoblasts.

BOLIVIA (República de Bolivia), an independent state of South America, whose limits before the war on the Pacific were between latitudes 10° and 24° south, and longitudes 57° 25′ and 70° 30' west. The western limit has still to be negotiated between Bolivia and Chili. It is bounded on the north and northeast by Brazil, on the south by the Argentine Republic and Chili, and on the west by Peru.

The republic previous to the war was divided into nine departments, which, with their areas in square miles, capitals, and population (exclusive of 250,000 savage Indians), were approximately as follows:

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70,178 150,000

72,793

10,380 70,200 275,722

Cobija...

Trinidad.

26,808

478,717

43,051

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21.600

140,356

54,297

376,394

144,077

176,088

114,484

180,940

Santa Cruz. Tarija...

697,288

The result of the war between Bolivia and Peru on the one hand, and Chili on the other, terminated in 1883, has been to deprive Bolivia of its former outlet on the Pacific, Cobija, but the treaty of peace which was being negotiated between Bolivia and Chili at Santiago, at the

2,324,150

Oruro.

Potosi

Population

2,500

4,635

26,624

44,908

$3,092

8,492

25.774

11,786

8,875

close of that year, may still lead to a territorial rearrangement which shall give Bolivia the coveted port or ports. Should Bolivia be disappointed in this respect, Brazil is said to be ready to facilitate Bolivian trade through San Antonio on the Madeira river. Brazil would

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