works, a large number of articles on botanical and physiological subjects. He also wrote the botanical part of the "Voyage de la Coquille" (1831), and " Enumération des Genres des Plantes cultivées au Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle" (1843).

BROWNSON, ORESTES AUGUSTUS, LL. D., an American author, born at Stockbridge, Vt., September 16, 1803; died in Detroit, Mich., April 17, 1876. In his nineteenth year he joined the Presbyterian Church at Ballston, N. Y., where he was at the time attending an academy; but he afterward changed his views, and he became in 1825 a Universalist minister. He preached in different villages in Vermont and New York, and wrote for various religious periodicals in support of his new belief. His ecclesiastical position had grown into disfavor with him, when, making the acquaintance of Robert Owen, he was fascinated by schemes of social reform, and in 1828 he was prominent in the formation of the Working-men's party in New York, the design of which was to relieve the poorer classes by political organization; but he presently despaired of the effectiveness of this movement. Afterward the writings of Dr. Channing drew his attention to the Unitarians, and in 1832 he became pastor of a congregation of that denomination. In 1836 he organized in Boston the "Society for Christian Union and Progress," of which he retained the pastorate till he ceased preaching in 1843. Immediately after removing to Boston he published his "New Views of Christianity, Society, and the Church," remarkable for its protest against Protestantism. In 1838 he established the Boston Quarterly Review, of which he was proprietor, and almost sole writer, during the five years of its separate existence, and to which he contributed largely during the first year after it was merged in the Democratic Review, of New York. It was designed not to support any definite doctrine, but to awaken thought on great subjects, with reference to speedy and radical changes. To this end also he published in 1840 Charles Elwood, or the Infidel converted," a philosophico-religious treatise, in the form of a novel. In 1844 he entered the Roman Catholic communion, to which he afterward remained attached. The method which he adopted in his philosophical system is the distinction between intuition (direct perception) and reflection (indirect or reflex knowledge). The mind is unconsciously intuitive; it does not, in intuition, know that it has intuition of this or that truth, because as soon as it knows or is conscious of the intuition it has reflex knowledge. Reflection can contain nothing which is not first in intuition. In order to reflect on that which we know intuitively, we must have some sensible sign by which the mind may apprehend or take hold of it. Such a sign is language, both in the ordinary and figurative sense of the word, which thus holds in his metaphysics a place VOL. XVI.-6 A

corresponding to that which tradition holds in his religious system. The knowledge of God, he maintained, is intuitive. The ideal element of every intellectual act is God creating creatures, ens creat existentias. The later publications of Mr. Brownson are "The SpiritRapper" (1854), "The Convert, or Leaves from my Experience" (1857), and "The American Republic" (1865). From 1844 he conducted almost single-handed, in Boston and New York, Brownson's Quarterly Review, devoted especially to the defense of Roman Catholic doctrines, but also discussing politics and literature. This periodical was suspended in 1864, and revived in 1873, and continued to the close of 1875. He was invited by Dr. John H. Newman and others to accept a chair in the new university in Dublin, but he preferred to continue his labors in his native country. Translations of several of his works and essays have been published in Europe, where he is probably better known and appreciated than in this country.

BUCHHOLTZ, REINHOLD, a German naturalist, born in 1836; died April 17, 1876. He received his early education in the Gymnasium of Königsberg, and afterward in the Joachimsthal Gymnasium in Berlin. He then studied medicine as his profession, and natural history, in the Universities of Berlin and Greifswalde, but zoology was his favorite study. After graduating at Greifswalde, he settled there as practising physician, but soon went to Italy in order to make in Genoa and Naples thorough studies on the different animals inhabiting the sea. Although he had to struggle with great embarrassments, he was entirely successful, bringing home with him some valuable specimens of the animals of the Mediterranean. He then took part in the North Pole Expedition of the Hansa, sharing all the adventures and privations of that ill-fated vessel. The loss of his collections and instruments on board of the Hansa affected him so much that in a fit of insanity he left his companions on the coast of Greenland. He was found among the icebergs, almost frozen, and was brought home by the mate of the Hansa. He was placed in an asylum, where he was cured in a comparatively short time, so that he soon again resumed his studies. He now wrote several articles about the expedition of the Hansa, and was soon after appointed professor in the University of Greifswalde. In 1872, in company with two young physicians, he went to the west coast of Africa to explore the mouths of the Niger. One of his companions died of yellow fever, while Buchholtz returned to Greifswalde in 1875, after having passed through a shipwreck on the Madeira Islands, and various other dangers. In 1876 he was appointed ordinary professor at Greifswalde, in recognition of his services. But the dangers and privations of his travels had been too much for him, and had completely undermined his health.

BURRELL, Sir PERCY, Bart., M. P., was born in 1812; died July 20, 1876. He was educated at Westminster and at Christchurch, Oxford. He was a deputy-lieutenant and justice of the peace for the county of Sussex, and a captain in the Eighteenth Sussex Rifle Volunteers. In 1862 he was elected for the borough of Shoreham, and kept this seat up to his death. In politics he was a moderate Conservative, declaring himself in favor of "national education being based on religion." The ancestors of the family were the Burrells of Brooke Park, near Alnwick, one of whom married a daughter of Sir Walter de Wodeland, equerry to the Black Prince.

BUSHNELL, HORACE, D. D., an American clergyman, born at New Preston, Conn., in 1802; died at Hartford, February 17, 1876. He graduated at Yale College in 1827, was teacher in an academy at Norwich, Conn., and in 1829 became tutor in Yale College, and at the same time studied law, and afterward theology. In 1833 he became pastor of the North Congregational Church in Hartford, where he continued with eminent ability until 1859, when ill health compelled him to resign. In 1837 he delivered at Yale College the Phi Beta Kappa oration on the "Principles of National Greatness," and in 1847 published "Christian Nurture," in which he discussed the subject of religious education, and treated of the family as a religious institution. In 1849 appeared "God in Christ," three discourses previously delivered, with a preliminary "Dissertation on Language as related to Thought." The views herein expressed respecting the doctrine of the Trinity were questioned, and the author was called upon to answer a charge of heresy before the Clerical Association, of which he was a member. The charge was not sustained. In

further explanation and defense of his views, he published in 1851 a work entitled "Christ in Theology," in which he argued that systematic orthodoxy is not attainable, and that human language is incapable of expressing with any exactness theological science. His other principal works are: "Sermons for the New Life" (1858); "Nature and the Supernatural" (1858); "Work and Play" (1864); "Christ and His Salvation" (1864); "The Vicarious Sacrifice" (1865); "Moral Uses of Dark Things" (1868); and "Woman's Suffrage, the Reform against Nature" (1869). He also published many addresses, and was a frequent contributor to religious periodicals.

BUTCHER, SAMUEL, Bishop of Meath, born in 1811; died July 22, 1876. He was the second son of Vice-Admiral Butcher, R. N. He received his education in Trinity College, Dublin, of which he was elected a Fellow in 1837. In 1850 he was appointed Professor of Ecclesiastical History, in 1852 Regius Professor of Divinity, and in 1866 Bishop of Meath. He was a member of her Majesty's Privy Council in Ireland, a member of the Royal Irish Academy, and enjoyed precedence, in right of his see, as premier bishop in that kingdom. He was the ninetieth holder of the see in succession since its foundation in the sixth century. He wrote "An Introductory Lecture on the Study of Ecclesiastical Literature" (1851), "Sermons on the Crimean War" (1854), "On the Present State of the Romish Controversy in Ireland” (1855), "On the Relative Value of Human and Divine Knowledge" (1857), "On the Conservative Character of the English Reformation" (1862), "Some Thoughts on the Supreme Authority of the Scriptures" (1864), and "Two Sermons on Dr. Pusey's Eirenicon'" (1866).

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CABALLERO, FERNAN, the nom de plume of the Spanish novelist Cecilia de Arrom, born in 1797; died in July, 1876. She was born in Switzerland, and was the daughter of Böhl von Faber, a German merchant. Having been educated in Germany, she went to Spain with her father in 1813, where the latter had a large business. Having become a widow after a short period of married life, she married the Marquis de Arco-Hermeso, and, when the latter had died in 1835, the lawyer Arrom. As his widow she has lived in Seville since 1863. In 1849 she published her first novel, "La Gaviota," which was followed by a number of others, a nong which may be particularly mentioned La Familia de Alvareda," "Clemencia," "Lágrimas," and "Ella." She also published several collections of smaller tales. Her works from the beginning attracted general attention in Spain, which soon spread to France, Ger

many, and other European countries. She was the founder of modern realistic romance in Spain, whose people she described with wonderful truth and accuracy. But in all her works she showed herself an ardent Spaniard, and her writings are of a national character, like those of few other writers of fiction. Her object was to encourage the Spaniards to hold on to their old customs, their old faith, and to return to the old monarchy. In this way she expected to see a regeneration of Spain brought about. Her "Cuentas Poesias Populares Andaluces" (1859) were the first collection of Spanish popular tales and songs. Her principal works were translated into English, German, French, and Italian.

CABRERA, Don RAMON, Count of Morella, a Carlist general, born August 31, 1810; died August 29, 1876. He studied theology in his youth, but, as the life of a priest did not suit

pied considerable attention. The Legislature of 1873-74 had provided for submitting the question to a vote of the people, declaring in the act for that purpose that "a majority of the aggregate vote of the State cast for menbers of the Legislature being in favor of a convention, said convention shall be deemed to have been called." The provision of the constitution which relates to calling a convention for its revision uses this language: "If it shall appear that a majority of the electors voting at such election have voted in favor of calling a convention, the Legislature shall, at its next

him, he entered the ranks of the Carlists, among whom he soon became known for his bravery and his cruelty, particularly for the latter. In 1837 he took part in the expedition of Don Carlos against Madrid, on which he received the title of Count of Morella, in consequence of a successful battle at Morella. Espartero, who had command of the Christinos, repulsed the Carlists, whose cause from that time gradually declined. Maroto, the Carlist commander-in-chief, concluded the convention of Vergara, España was murdered, and only Cabrera succeeded in maintaining himself in the mountains of Aragonia. In 1840 he was defeated by O'Donnell, driven to Catalonia, and finally forced on July 6, 1840, to cross the French border. For one year he was a prisoner in the fortress of Ham, then went to Lyons, and from there protested against the resignation of Don Carlos. In 1848 he again tried to carry the standard of revolt into Spain, but was defeated and forced to flee. After the battle of Pastoral, on January 17, 1849, he was driven to France, remained there for a short time, and then went to England, where he married Miss Richards, a very rich lady. In 1850 he sought in vain to bring about complications between the kingdom of Naples and Spain, and, having been expelled from the former country, he retired entirely from the political field, taking, no part in the Carlist rising in 1854 against the rule of Espartero and O'Donnell. In the last Carlist war, which came to an end in 1876, he openly took the part of Don Alfonso XII., who confirmed all his titles and dignities which he had received from Don Carlos. The address which he issued to the Carlists, calling upon them to lay down arms, produced but little effect, while Don Carlos had him tried by court-martial, which sentenced him to death in contumaciam. CALIFORNIA. The twenty-first session of the Legislature of California began on the 6th of December, 1875, and continued until April 3, 1876. The number of acts approved by the Governor was 585; but scarcely any of these were of special importance. The leading subjects of consideration and discussion were finally left without any practical action. Among these was a general plan of irrigation for the State, reform of the educational system, prevention of what was known as the "land monopoly," the regulation of agricultural and raining interests, reform in the penal system, and other matters, which occupied a large share of attention, and were the subjects of reports and bills, but of no enactments. The subject of retrenchment in government expenses was referred to a special committee, which made an elaborate report, pointing out wherein the expenditures were extravagant, and could be reduced, but nothing was done either in the appropriations or tax-levy to diminish materially the cost of administration.

session, provide by law for calling a convention, to be holden within six months after the passage of such law." At the election of 1875 a majority of the votes cast upon the proposition for a Constitutional Convention were in favor of it, but the number was much less than a majority of all the votes cast at the same election for other purposes. The question, therefore, arose whether the vote of the people authorized the calling of a convention. A bill for the purpose was introduced in the Senate and referred to the Judiciary Committee. Two reports were made, a minority of the committee recommending that the bill pass, and the majority recommending its indefinite postponement. The minority took the ground that it was the intent of the constitution that a majority of the electors voting on the proposition for a convention should determine whether it was to be held, and the majority maintained that a majority of the persons voting at the election for any purpose was necessary. The majority report was finally adopted. A bill originating in the Assembly for the same purpose was passed by that body, but defeated in the Senate. An act was passed recommending the electors of the State to vote at the next election on the amendments of the constitution, proposed by the Legislature of 1873-74.

The question of calling a convention for the revision of the constitution of the State occu

The subject of regulating railroads occupied a very large share of attention during the session. No fewer than four bills were introduced and debated at considerable length. They were all referred to a committee, which made an

elaborate report on the general subject of railroad legislation, and recommended the passage of an act, originating in the Senate, known as the "O'Connor bill." This was passed, and received the approval of the Governor on the 3d of April. It provides that the Governor shall, on or before the 15th of May, 1876, appoint three competent persons as Commissioners of Transportation, who shall be in no way connected with or interested in railroad business, and who shall serve two years, or until their successors are appointed. They must qualify by taking an appropriate oath, and entering into bonds of $10,000 each for the faithful performance of their duties. Each commissioner is to be paid $3,000 per annum, and a secretary may be employed, at a salary of $1,800. It is made the duty of the commissioners to inspect_railroads and require them to be kept in a safe condition. All companies are required to file with the commissioners copies of their tariffs of charges, their rules, regulations, and instructions to employés in force on the 1st of January, 1876, and to make no changes in them. The president, or other executive officer in charge of each railroad company, is required to furnish detailed information of its affairs, sixty-three items being designated of the information to be given, covering the amount of stock and debts of the road, cost and equipment, characteristics, operations of the last year, earnings, and expenses. Neglect to furnish this information is made punishable by fine of $100 to $1,000. Authority is given to the commissioners to examine the books and papers and the officers and employés of any railroad company in order to ascertain its condition and management. In case of dispute the commissioners may fix the route of any new line, determine the compensation to be made by one railroad to another for transportation, and determine the time-tables, accommodations, etc., required by the public. Awards by the commissioners are subject to revision in the county courts, with the right of appeal to the Supreme Court. Extortion and discrimination are defined and prohibited under penalties, to be exacted by the commissioners. The substance of the definition of extortion is demanding or receiving more than the regular specified rates for fare, freight, storage, or delivery, and discrimination is demanding or receiving more or less of one person than another for a like service. The issue of free passes is restricted to the directors, officers, and employés of the railroads, with their families, the officers and agents of other railroads, and of telegraph companies, destitute persons, the State Commissioners, and their employés traveling on official business, public messengers, troops and persons entitled by existing laws or contracts to free transportation. There is a penalty of $100 for issuing free passes to others than those designated. It is made the duty of the commissioners to investigate violations of the law and prosecute suits therefor.

Among the bills which were prominent in the deliberations, but which failed to pass, was one to simplify the school system, one repealing the compulsory education law, one compelling publishers of libels to make retraction, and one requiring the signature of the writer to be appended to all newspaper articles. Among the other acts passed was one to regulate the practice of medicine, requiring all practitioners to have a diploma, either from some medical institution or from a board of examiners authorized and established by the act; one abolishing the Board of Tide Land Commissioners; one repealing the act to permit the voters of every town or city to vote on the question of granting licenses for the sale of liquor; and one establishing a Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children.

A committee of the Assembly, appointed to examine into the affairs of the State LandOffice, having reported unfavorably on its administration, a commission was provided to inquire more thoroughly into all matters relating to the sales and disposal of the public lands of the State. Its report was made to the Governor on the 14th of October. This showed that the fees of the office of SurveyorGeneral and Register of the Land-Office from December 4, 1871, to December 6, 1875, amounted to $74,713.36, of which $42,499.97 was unaccounted for. The Surveyor-General during that period claimed to have expended $31,004.07 for extra clerk-hire, maps, certificates, postage, expressage, and traveling-expenses. Allowing these items, there was still $11,211.32 unaccounted for. Besides the fees of the office, there had been expended by it $65,565.60 drawn from the State Treasury. The commission concluded that "lamentable extravagance (to use the mildest possible language)”had "characterized the official conduct of the ex-Surveyor-General."

The subject of Chinese immigration was taken up by the Legislature and an investigation by a commission of the Senate ordered to take place during the recess. The following resolutions were also adopted:

Whereas, It is the duty of the General Government to promote the welfare of its citizens by the enactment of wise laws, and to advance their material inforeign nations, by conceding to their subjects such terests by treaties of friendship and commerce with rights as they allow our citizens to enjoy in their territories; and

Whereas, Our present treaty with China grants to her subjects privileges for which in return we rebring to our shores large numbers of her people, ceive no corresponding advantages, but which many of whom come among us to pursue an immoral vocation, which has made certain quarters of our towns and cities localities where human degradation is seen in its most abhorrent forms; and

Whereas, The laboring element that is brought among us from China by organized companies of capitalists is not of a desirable character as residents, because, owing to the low standard of living on which it can subsist, it deprives our own workingpeople of employment in industries which they have learned only by a long apprenticeship; and

Whereas, Pauper wages for our own working

classes, who have wives and children depending on them for support, result from the maintenance of the treaty with China, which largely contributes to fill our poor-houses and hospitals with unwilling inmates as the only shelter they can obtain from poverty and sickness caused by loss of work; and

Whereas, It is against public policy that under any present pretext whatever encouragement should be given by treaty stipulations, or otherwise, to the immigration of a servile laboring element among us: therefore, be it

Resolved by the Senate, the Assembly concurring, That our Senators be instructed, and our Representatives requested, to use their influence to have Articles V. and VI. of our treaty with China modified, so as to discourage the further immigration of Chinese to our shores, by appropriate action on the part of the Federal Government.

Resolved, That his Excellency the Governor be requested to forward a copy of the foregoing preamble and resolutions to our Senators and Representatives in Congress at as early a day as possible.

Before the Senate commission entered upon its inquiry, a public meeting was held in San Francisco for the expression of the sentiment of the people on the subject. Governor Irwin addressed the meeting, declaring that the influx of the Chinese threatened a subversion of our civilization and the degradation of American labor. An address was adopted setting forth the extent of Chinese immigration, its effect upon industry, morals, and health, and the necessity of some action to put a check upon it. Among the statements of the address were the following:

Altogether they cannot be made more than in a partial degree amenable to the laws of the several States they have invaded; they, in effect, constitute a vast secret society, governed by laws and controlled by officials of their own; beyond the reach of the legally constituted authorities of the land, they are for the most part so singularly regardless of the laws of health in their mode of living and so difficult to be brought within sanitary regulations, especially as to proper ventilation in their crowded abodes, as to constitute wherever they are found in numbers a startling menace to public health.

They will never acquire our language except for the purpose of perfecting themselves for certain employment. Their civilization is not in accordance with ours. Their numbers make them as formidable, and their habits as destructive, as the locusts of Egypt or the grasshoppers of Kansas.

We look upon them with fear and alarm. No superiority of race or intelligence can resist such superiority of numbers. They are not of us, and we invoke the protection of the General Government against the invasion now upon us and with which we are threatened.

The committee give their denial to the sentimental error that the Chinese are distinguished for the peculiar possession of the virtues of industry and are a law-abiding and inoffensive population. The truth is, that in the city of San Francisco there are not less than ten thousand Chinese belonging to the criminal classes, and number among them the most abandoned and dangerous of criminals: that they are more difficult to manage by the police authorities than the same class among the white people, and are entirely out of the pale of any possible refor

mation.

The committee are informed, upon intelligent Chinese authority, that this class is dangerous, and a constant source of terror to their own people, embracing as it does gamblers, opium-eaters, hangerson upon dens of prostitution, and men of abandoned

and violent character who live upon their countrymen by levying black-mail, and exacting tribute from all classes of Chinese society.

The address closed with the following resolutions, which were adopted by the meeting:

Resolved, That the sentiments embodied in the foregoing address are expressions of the opinion of this assemblage, and in view of the facts therein set forth we earnestly recommend the Congress of the United States to give this matter of Chinese immigration its immediate and earnest attention.

Resolved, That the people of California, in their perfect loyalty to the Government and the law, recognize their duty to the Chinese now among us, promising them protection and all their rights, and a guarantee of all the privileges to which they are entitled under existing laws.

Resolved, That in relation to the continuing immigration of Chinese, we claim the right, from our superior knowledge of the results of this immigration and our observation of its practical workings, and as clare our unalterable hostility to it, to say that the an intelligent part of the American people, to debulk of this immigration is pure and simple peonage.

Resolved, That the majority of the immigrants are coolies, in bondage to secret organizations more powerful than our courts, and held in servitude for debt -a slavery only terminable at the will of masters over whom our laws have no control.

Resolved, That this system is immoral and brutalizing-worse than African slavery. It involves systematic violation of our State and municipal laws, and is attended by murder, false and forcible imthe sale of women for the purpose of prostitution. prisonment, perjury, subornation, kidnapping, and

Resolved, That the presence of these people in our midst has a tendency to demoralize society and minister to its worst vices; it aids to corrupt and debauch our youth, and the labor of this servile class comes in direct competition with the labor of American citizens. It degrades industrial occupations, drives white labor from the market, multiplies idlers tion. If these things be true-and we challenge and paupers, and is a menace to Christian civilizatheir successful denial-then we have a right to demand of Congress that it shall investigate, and then legislate for the abatement of this evil: therefore

meeting in charge shall appoint, the mayor of the Resolved, That the general committee having this city approving, not to exceed five reputable citizens of San Francisco, intelligent upon this Chinese question, who shall proceed to Washington, and, having submitted this address and these resolutions to the Houses of Congress, shall earnestly urge such legislation as may be necessary to meet the requirements of this occasion.

The Senate commission pursued its investigation for several weeks during the months of April and May, and took a large mass of testimony concerning the character and effects of Chinese immigration. In the latter part of the year a committee of the Federal Senate visited the State for the purpose of inquiring into the same subject. The official reports have not yet been made public.

There was no State election this year, but conventions of the political parties were held for the purpose of appointing delegates to the national conventions. That of the Republicans took place at Sacramento, on the 27th of April. The following resolutions were unanimously adopted:

Resolved, That we have undiminished faith in the integrity of the Republican party of the nation; that