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418,516

163,544

4,776,588

2,978,849

cree of September 20, 1874, authorized the Minister of Finance to enter a new foreign debt to the amount of 825,000,000 francs, with five per cent. interest, into the Great Book. Of this amount, 397,000,000 francs, at an issueprice of 43 per cent., with back interest from June 13, 1874 (therefore real issue-price = 424 per cent.), were issued in September, 1874. A financial report from Constantinople, dated May 10, 1875, estimates the entire debt of the Turkish Empire at 5,023,860,500 francs. In October, 1875, the Sublime Porte decreed that during five years, from January 1, 1876, the interest of the public debt be paid half in cash 398,684 and half in five per cent. bonds. So much of 1,400 the principal as would fall due during the same 95,794 period should be paid in like manner. this purpose a law of October 20, 1875, authorized the Minister of Finance to issue, in the course of the next five years, five per cent. gold bonds to the total amount of £35,000,000, 17,078 or 875,000,000 francs, in series of £7,000,000 25.411 each. 157,147

35,000

858,771
586,755
780,582

160,000
160.000

5,949

5,785,819
1,009,231

If the floating debt, the expenses of war, and the payments due to the soldiers and others, are added to the deficit, it swells to twenty-two million Turkish pounds ($94,200,000).

During the year 1874 the floating debt very largely increased, but the promise was made that it would be entirely consolidated. A de

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The public liabilities of Turkey are officially divided into foreign or hypothecated debts, secured on special sources of revenue, and internal debts, known under a variety of names, issued at Constantinople alone, and therefore dependent only on a compact between the Porte and its subjects, and secured on the general credit and resources of the empire. The following table exhibits the foreign debts contracted from 1854 to 1874 (value expressed in francs: 1 franc = $0.193):

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Russia, Greece, and Egypt, support post-office in Constantinople.

The Turkish Army is composed of the regu lar, irregular, and auxiliary troops. According to a law of June 22, 1869, and later decrees, the reorganization of the army is to be completed in 1878. It is to consist of 720,000 men, divided into the active army (about 220,000 men), the first reserve (80,000 men), the second reserve, and the sedentary army (corresponding to the German Landsturm). `In this case

the yearly contingent would amount to about 37,500 men. The irregular troops consist of the gensdarmes, the Bashi-Bazouks, Spahis, Bedouins, and other volunteer corps, together about 50,000 men. The auxiliary troops are composed of contingents furnished by the provinces not yet subject to the nizam (active army) and the tributary states, and amount to about 80,000 men. In time of peace the army would number 157,667 men and 26,040 horses. The Turkish Navy consisted, in 1874, of 19 large iron-clads, carrying 120 guns; 17 screwsteamers, of 640 guns; and about 80 other steamers: total, 150 steamers, carrying about 1,600 guns. The navy was manned by 30,000 sailors and 4,000 marine troops. The crews are raised in the same manner as the landforces, partly by conscription and partly by voluntary enlistment. The time of service in the Navy is eight years.

The total length of railroads in operation in 1875 was 1,530 kilometres (1 kilometre = 0.62 mile) in Europe, and 274 kilometres in Asia. The length of telegraph-lines, in 1874, was 28,038, and of the wires 46,730 kilometres. The number of offices was 393, and the number of dispatches sent and received 910,130.

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Italians, 2,700 Turks, Poles, Tartars, and others. A recent Roumanian writer, Cretzulesco, "La Roumanie considerée sous le Rapport physique, administratif et économique,' in the Bulletin de la Société Geographique Roumaine (Nos. 1-5, Bucharest, 1876), estimates the population belonging to the Roumanian nationality in other countries as follows: Hungary, 1,171,000; Transylvania, 1,500,000; other countries of Austro-Hungary, 360,100; Servia and Turkey, 1,600,000; Russia, especially in Bessarabia, 1,000,000; but other writers give the number of Roumanians in Turkey proper at only 200,000, and in Servia at 127,000.

In the

The population of the largest cities is given as follows: Bucharest, 221,805; Jassy, 90,000; Galatz, 80,000; Botoshani, 40,000; Plõesti, 33,000; Braila, 28,272; Byrlat, 26,568; Krayova, 22,764; Ismail, 21,000; Giurgevo, 20,866; Foktchany, 20,323; Piatra, 20,000. budget of the year 1876 the revenue and the expenditure were estimated each at 97,894,427 lei (1 lei = $0.193). The public debt on January 1, 1877, amounted to 620,710,213 lei. The aggregate strength of the permanent army and the "territorial" troops (which are localized in their respective districts) is 1,613 officers and 62,158 men, with 14,921 horses. The navy consists of 3 steamers and 6 gun-sloops. The imports, in 1874, were valued at 92,363,000 lei, the exports at 135,858,000 lei. The most important article of export is grain, especially wheat and maize. The movement of shipping in the most important ports, in 1875, was as follows:

ROUMANIA.-The Turkish dependency of Roumania was, in 1875, governed by Prince Charles I., son of the late Prince Charles of Hohenzollern - Sigmaringen. Prince Charles was born April 20, 1839; elected Prince of Roumania, May 10, 1866; married, November 15, 1869, to Elizabeth, Princess of Neuwied. A new ministry was formed on July 24, 1876, which was composed as follows: Presidency of the Ministry and Finance, J. C. Bratiano; War, Colonel J. Staniceano; Foreign Affairs, N. Jonesco; Justice, E. Statesco; Public Instruction and Worship, J. Chitzu; Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works, D. Sturdza. The area is 46,795 square miles. The popula- Giurgevo.. tion was, at the close of 1873, estimated at 5,073,000, of whom 2,618,136 were males and 2,454,864 females. The movement of population from 1870 to 1873 was as follows:

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1870. 1871... 1872. 1873.

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3,409
5,083

+ 85,589
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-227

28,010 148,419 117,983
35.872 144,172 | 137,596
29,257 145,504 146,031 4,049

The great majority of the people (4,529,000) belong to the Greek Oriental Church. The Roman Catholics number about 114,200; the Protestants, 13,800; the Armenians, 8,000; the Lipowans, 6,000; the Israelites, 400,000; the Mohammedans, 2,000.

About 85 per cent. of the population belong to the Roumanian nationality. Of non-Roumanians, there are about 400,000 Israelites, 200,000 Gypsies, 85,000 Slavi, 39,000 Germans, 29,500 Hungarians, 8,000 Armenians, 5,000 Greeks, 2,000 French, 1,000 Englishmen, 500 VOL. XVI.-48 A

Braila..
Galatz.

PORTS.

Other ports..

Total........

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11,977 1,464,946 11,458 1,582,182

In 1875 the length of the railroads in operation was 1,231 kilometres, and that of the telegraph-lines 3,820; that of wires, 6,842 kilometres. There were 236 post-offices; the number of private letters mailed was 5,072,686; the number of official letters, 966,479.

DANUBE COMMISSION.-The European Danube Commission, which was established in pursuance of Article XVI. of the Treaty of Paris, and embraces the representatives of the seven treaty-powers (Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy, Austria, Russia, and Turkey), has its seat at Galatz. It is not subject to the Roumanian Government, but has sovereign power over the lower course of the Danube down from Isaktchi; it manages the police, publishes regulations which have legal power, levies taxes, contracts loans, and disposes of its revenue for the furtherance of works of public usefulness. According to a new treaty, adopted by the Pontus Conference on March

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SERVIA. The present ruler of Servia, the other dependency of Turkey in Europe, Milan Obrenovitch IV., was born in 1854, and succeeded to the throne by the election of the Servian National Assembly, after the assassination of his uncle, Prince Michael Obrenovitch, June, 1868; was crowned at Belgrade, and assumed the government, August 22, 1872. He was married, on October 17, 1875, to Natalie de Kesho, the daughter of a Russian nobleman. Offspring of the union is a son, Prince Alexander, born August 14, 1876. The Servian ministry, in November, 1876, was composed as follows: Presidency and Foreign Affairs, Ristitch; Interior, Miloikovitch; Finance, Ivanovitch; War, General Nikolitch; Worship, Wassilyevitch; Justice, Gruitch; Public Works, Stevtcha. The legislative authority is exercised by the Skupshtina. The former Senate has been changed into a Council of State, which prepares the laws. The Skupshtina is composed of delegates chosen by the people, at the rate of one deputy to every 2,000 electors, and consisted, in 1875, of 134 members, of whom 33 were appointed by the prince and 101 elected by the people. According to the budget for the years 1875-'76, the revenue was 35,256,000 tax-piasters (1 piaster 4 cents), and the expenditure 34,806,000 piasters. The area of Servia is 16,817 square miles; population, at the close of 1874, 1,352,522, of whom about 5,000 are Mohammedans, 1,500 Jews, 360 Protestants, 3,400 Roman Catholics, and the remainder members of the Orthodox Greek Church. The capital, Belgrade, had, in 1874, a population of 27,605, exclusive of the garrison. The army actually under arms consists of 4,720 men, all infantry with the exception of 200 cavalry and a small artillery corps. The strength of the reserves is 150,490 men. The imports were valued, in 1872, at 27,400,000 francs; the exports at 27,300,000 francs. There were, in 1875, not yet any railroads in Servia, but the construction of a road from Belgrade to Nissa was begun; the aggregate length of the tele

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graph-lines was, in 1872, 1,376; that of the telegraph-wires, 2,051 kilometres. The number of private letters passing through the postoffice was 740,838; the number of official letters, 431,275.

MONTENEGRO. The principality of Montenegro, which was formerly a tributary state of Turkey, must now be regarded as an entirely independent state. It has an area of 1,701 square miles, and a population of about 190,000, nearly all of whom belong to the Greek Oriental Church, and the Servian nationality. All the men from seventeen to sixty, who are able to bear arms, constitute the national army, which numbers from 25,000 to 27,000 men. The country is divided into eight military districts, at the head of each of which is a sedar. The districts are subdivided into forty tribes, with a captain at the head of each. Subordinate to the captain are chiefs of one hundred and of ten men. In time of war every captain takes independently the necessary steps, until he can receive the orders of the sedar or the prince. The military organization is so complete that all the ablebodied men of the principality can be concentrated in one place within seventy-two hours.

The note of Count Andrassy of December 30, 1875 (see ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA for 1875), was delivered to Reshid Pasha by Count Zichy, the Austrian embassador at Constantinople, on January 31, 1876; and on the same day the embassadors of England, Germany, France, Italy, and Russia, declared that they supported the Austrian propositions in all their points. On the 5th of February Reshid Pasha informed the embassadors verbally, that a new firman decreeing reforms would be issued immediately for Bosnia and the Herzegovina. On the 20th, Reshid Pasha delivered to Count Zichy, as an answer to the Andrassy note, a memorandum promising to carry out the measures supported by the powers in Bosnia and the Herzegovina, immediately as to four points, and as soon as possible as to the fifth point. Previously, on the 11th of February, an iradé had been issued for the institution of certain reforms in these provinces. (The tenor of this iradé is given in another place in this article.)

The Prince of Montenegro had, about the 1st of January, expressed a desire to the Czar of Russia to be allowed to begin active operations. The Czar advised him on no account to depart from the policy of neutrality, and the prince gave assurances that he would be governed by this counsel. Nevertheless, reports prevailed during the month that Montenegro had negotiated a loan, and had made purchases at one time of 10,000 rifles and 60 muskets, and at another time of 15,000 muskets. In consequence of the threatening attitude of Turkey, it was represented, January 9th, that 3,000 Montenegrin guards had been armed with breech-loaders and sent to the frontier. A few days later a war-council of senators and military officers, summoned by the prince, resolved

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that, if the concentration of the Turkish forces on the frontier was to take such proportions as really to carry into effect a repeated plan of blockading Montenegro on that side, it would be considered a casus belli, and the prince should summon all Montenegrins liable to duty and march into the Herzegovina; and that, in the mean time, Montenegro should keep an attitude of caution, but not disturb the peace, if Turkish operations developed nothing more serious than the present situation. An envoy was sent by Ali Pasha to Cettigne, requesting the prince to recall Pico Paulovitch, the insurgent commander, and to prevent the Montenegrins from joining the insurrectionists. The prince received the envoy coldly, and declined to interfere.

An article appeared in the Montenegrin official gazette during January, stating that Turkey was determined to make war upon Montenegro, justifying the insurrection, and denouncing the cruelty of the Turks. It declared that Montenegro had so far conformed to the requirements of international law. If Turkey acted differently, Montenegro would be freed from all restraint, and forced to adopt any measures calculated to protect herself and

BELGRADE.

secure the future of the Servian race. The article concluded: "No regard for any one or any thing will fetter our action." The attention of the northern powers was called to this article, and they again remonstrated with the prince for countenancing the insurrection and allowing the article to appear.

The close of the year 1875 was signalized by a brilliant operation on the part of Raouf Pasha, the Turkish commander in the Herzegovina, in the relief of Nicsic, whose garrison had been reduced to their last rations. Two divisions were detailed to march into the Duga Pass from the north and south respectively; while a third division, diverting the insur

gents into a valley, fought and defeated them. Raouf Pasha retired from the command of the Turkish force at the end of 1875, and was succeeded by Mukhtar Pasha, a nephew of the Sultan Abdul-Aziz. The new commander arrived at Klek on January 1, 1876, and proceeded directly to Trebigne, where he established his headquarters. The situation was not encouraging to the Turks. Since August, at least 30,000 men had been sent to the Herzegovina, of whom not more than 15,000 were fit for duty, and these were suffering for the lack of money, transportation, and medical supplies. An engagement occurred on the 18th of January, between the insurgents and the Turks, on the road from Ragusa to Trebigne, in which the insurgents claimed that they had defeated the Turks and inflicted a severe loss upon them. The Turks claimed to have gained the advantage in another engagement. On the 11th of February the Porte issued the following iradé, promising reforms in the disaffected districts:

The Sultan, with the object of ending the evils prevailing in the Herzegovina and Bosnia, and in accordance with the friendly advice of the great powers, confirms the provisions of his recent firman, and

orders the execution of the following special reforms in the insurgent districts: 1. Complete liberty of worship.

2. Reform in the system of taxation.

3. Sale of waste lands to needy inhabitants, with facilities for payment.

4. The institution of mixed commissions in the capitals of Herzegovina and Bosnia, to insure prompt execution of reforms.

5. Augmentation of the sums applied to works of public utility in a proportion to be fixed by the advice of the mixed commissions.

These special reforms are granted for the welfare of those who, having been misled by perfidious counsels, desire to return to obedience. For these persons a general amnesty is proclaimed.

BOSNIA.-Haidir Effendi, formerly an embassador, was appointed president of the Bosnian Mixed Commission, and Varsa Effendi, an Albanian, president of the Commission for Herzegovina.

In connection with this iradé, the Turkish Government addressed a circular note to its representatives at the courts of the great powers, communicating to them the tenor of the Andrassy note. The circular also enumerated the reforms which the Sultan had ordered by his last iradé, as a complement to the favors previously granted, corresponding with the proposals of Count Andrassy, and which were to take effect without exception through

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