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cal Society;" the second and third volumes of the "Russian Historical Library;" the eighth and ninth volumes of the "Archives of Prince Vorontzof; "the "History of Tver," by Borzakofsky; the "Embassy to England in 1600 of Gregory Mikulin; "the "Historical Value of Russian Brigand Songs," by N. Aristof; the fifth volume of F. Bienemann's "Briefe und Urkunden zur Geschichte Livlands," from 1558 to 1562; and Johann Renner's "Livländische Historien."

From history to politics the transition is easy. The chief works in this division are, the third volume of Prof. Marten's "Collection of Russian Treaties and Conventions," which includes the treaties with Austria from 1808 to 1815; the second volume of Prof. Gradovsky's "German Constitution; ""Sketch of the History and Dogmas of International Law," by A. N. Stoyanof; and J. Keussler's "Communal Property and Emancipation."

In geographical and scientific literature there is not much to speak of.

The profound work of J. R. Aspelin, on "Finnio-Ugric Archæology," deserves special mention, although published in Finnish. As it is profusely illustrated, it may be useful even to those ignorant of that language.

LITERATURE, ENGLISH. The extent to which the best literature of England and America is interchanged has been referred to in the article LITERATURE AND LITERARY PROGRESS, with a notice of some of the principal English works republished in the United States. In the present article, consequently, mention is chiefly made of books not yet reproduced in American editions. And among these, the mass of compiled and ephemeral publications call for no particular notice. It is true that there is some risk in this rather wholesale and summary judgment, and it may prove to have been presumptuous in respect of some authors thus passed by, but the purpose of these reviews is not so much criticism as the record of contemporary estimates of literature, to note what books did in fact make an impression on the public, rather than to express our judgment as to what books ought to have been honored with the public approval.

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POETRY.-In the higher order of creative literary art, England had not much to show during the last year. The laureate put forth another tragedy. "Harold," regarded as a poem, will not discredit Mr. Tennyson, though it can add nothing to his fame; as a drama, while free from some of the faults of his Queen Mary," it is equally deficient in dramatic vitality. Mr. Browning gave us a volume with the enigmatic title "Pacchiarotto, and how he worked in Distemper, and, Other Poems." The leading piece is meant as "a fable for critics," but the critics for whom it is meant are less likely to wince under his satire than to point to the poem as a confirmatory instance of what they have alleged against the poet. Mr. Browning must be content to sing

for the initiated, and, if his "fit audience" proves to be also very "few," to put up with it as "the best his circumstance allows." The chief poetical sensation of the year was the discovery by Mr. Swinburne and the republication of " Joseph and his Brethren," a drama by Charles Wells, published forty years ago, neglected and forgotten, but pronounced by Mr. Swinburne to be worthy of comparison with the plays of Shakespeare. What adds to the surprising features of the case is the fact that the author whose work thus failed to gain public attention is still living to enjoy his lateblossoming reputation, a reputation which will not come up to the height of Mr. Swinburne's praise, but will make some amends for his previous total failure. The usual quota of minor poetry has appeared, but nothing that will excite more than a limited and temporary interest. Perhaps next to the case of Mr. Wells and his drama in interest is the identification of what had been supposed to be genuine old ballads as the work of an eccentric clergyman lately deceased, the Rev. Robert Stephen Hawker. One of his ballads deceived so keensighted a judge as Lord Macaulay. The name of Mr. Hawker has been brought before the public in an unpleasant way by a biography in which his memory is by no means honored, but which the public have reason to consider as more discreditable to the author than to the subject.

NOVELS.-In the department of prose fiction, the best is disappointing. Nobody but George Eliot could have written "Daniel Deronda," but it has not raised nor even sustained her great reputation. Mr. William Black's "Madcap Violet" is scarcely inferior to his best. As in his previous novels, the plot is open to exception, and some of his characters seem to approach the extreme of human possibility, if they do not overstep the modesty of Nature. But with whatever drawbacks, the power of his genius is incontestable. Mr. R. D. Blackmore's "Cripps the Carrier" is not a production that can add anything to the credit of the author of "Lorna Doone" and of "Alice Lorraine," however superior to the average novel. "The Hand of Ethelberta," by Mr. Thomas Hardy, comes nearer to doing justice to his recognized position among literary artists. Mr. Justin McCarthy's tale, "Dear Lady Disdain," is well conceived and worked out with his usual firmness of hand. "The Dilemma," by Colonel Chesney, author of "The Battle of Dorking," besides its high merits as a fiction, presents striking pictures of the Sepoy mutiny in India. "The Atonement of Leam Dundas," by Mrs. Linn Linton, takes a very high place among sensational novels, in fact, almost rises into a higher realm of fiction. Mrs. Oliphant's last two novels, "The Curate in Charge," and "Phoebe Junior, a Last Chronicle of Carlingford," are in her best style, which is a very good style indeed. "Thomas Wingfold, Curate," by Dr. George Macdonald, in a very

different style, is an advance in respect to artistic power upon his previous productions. "Rose Turquand," by Ellice Hopkins, and "The Master of Riverswood," by Mrs. Arthur Lewis, are productions of much promise, assuming them to be by new writers. A considerable list might be made out of fictions that attain to a respectable mediocrity of merit, and to something more than that in single features, but to what end?

HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY.-The completion of Mr. E. A. Freeman's "History of the Norman Conquest of England" is a matter of congratulation. Mr. Freeman is not a master of narration or of description. He is not what is termed an eloquent historian. But for clear exposition, placing the reader in the points of view from which he can best see the subject in all its parts, he stands in the first rank, and his work, we believe, is a permanent addition to the masterpieces of English literature. Prof. George Rawlinson has published his "Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy: History of the Sassanians," continuing, with undiminished grasp of learning and critical sagacity, to embody the results of recent Oriental investigations. The series is completed, bringing Oriental history down to the era from which modern history dates. Dean Stanley's third series of "Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church" expounds a portion of the Jewish annals, the dryness of which, as commonly treated, makes it by no means attractive to any but very inquisitive investigators. But nothing can resist the magic of Dean Stanley's enthusiasm. Whatever he touches turns up an interesting side, or is made to appear interesting by virtue of some association or suggestion caught by his fertile mind and brought into relation with it. His mild and conciliatory attitude of mind toward all forms of doctrine, and hospitality to new ideas, are also exhibited, if possible, more than in his previous Part I. of a productions. 66 History of the Moslems, from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century," by Henry H. Howorth, is the beginning of an important work. "Islam under the Arabs," by Major R. D. Osborn, deals with an interesting topic that needed elucidation. "The Ecclesiastical History of Ireland," by W. D. Killen, D. D., treats the subject from a Presbyterian point of view. Mr. Leslie Stephen's "History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century " is a philosophical review rather than a history of events. It is the fruit of earnest study by one who is himself an advanced thinker. "The English Bible; an External and Critical History of the Various English Translations of the Scriptures," etc., by the late Dr. John Eadie, can hardly be said to add to what has been before published on the subject. It is a convenient compilation of the known facts, with some considerations in favor of the revision of the authorized version.

Several biographical works of historical value have appeared. The "Life of William Earl of

Shelburne," in three volumes, has been completed. "Political and Military Episodes from the Life and Correspondence of the Rt. Hon. John Burgoyne," by E. B. Fonblanque, will enlarge the ideas of those whose only knowledge of the subject is, that he surrendered at Saratoga. The "Memoir of Earl Spencer," better known as Lord Althorp, the leader of the House of Commons by which the Reform Bill of 1832 was passed, is interesting as a biography, and valuable as a memorial of an important political epoch. The "Life of Lord Palmerston," by the Hon. Evelyn Ashley, throws light on a more recent period of political history. "Syria and Egypt under the Last Five Sultans of Turkey " are exhibited in a striking light in the "Experiences during Fifty Years of Mr. Consul-General Barker," by his son.

Of works in Literary and General Biography the most important during the year was the "Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay," by G. O. Trevelyan, which, if a cordial reception by the public can guarantee fame, promises to be a permanent addition to English literature. Of great and varied but painful interest is the "Memoirs of Robert William Haydon." Mr. John Forster's "Life of Swift," of which great expectations were authorized by the first volume, is left a fragment by the lamented death of the author. "William Whewell: an Account of his Writings, with Selections from his Scientific and Literary Correspondence," by I. Todhunter, commemorates a man who held a great place in the public view, and who in point of ability and acquirements was worthy of his position. Other works in this department of writing are: “Life and Opinions of Heinrich Heine," by William Stigand; "Life of Michelangelo," by Charles Heath Wilson; and "Forty Years' Recollections of Life, Literature, and Public Affairs," by Charles Mackey.

TRAVEL AND EXPLORATION.-The number of valuable and entertaining books of travel, exploration, and description, issued during the year, was unusually large. Of Oriental travel, we have "Notes of an Indian Journey," by M. E. Grant Duff, M. P.; "The Indian Alps, and how we crossed them," by "A Lady Pioneer; ""The Karens of the Golden Chersonese," by Lieutenant-Colonel A. R. McMahon; "Our Trip to Burmah, with Notes on that Country," by Surgeon-General Charles Alexander Gordon; "From the Hebrides to the Himalayas," by Miss Constance F. Gordon Cumming; Mandelay to Momien: a Narrative of the two Expeditions to Western China in 1868 and 1875," by John Anderson, M. D.; "The Journey of Augustus Raymond Margary, from Shanghai to Bhamo and back to Mayre," with a biographical preface and concluding chapter by Sir Rutherford Alcock; "The Roof of the World: a Journey over the High Plateau of Tibet to the Russian Frontier, and the Oxus Sources on Panmir," by Lieutenant-Colonel T. E. Gordon; "A Ride to Khiva: Travels and Adventures in Central Asia," by Frederick

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Burnaby; "The Shores of Lake Aral," by Major Herbert Wood, R. E.; "Clouds in the East: Travels and Adventures on the PersoTurkoman Frontier," by Valentine Baker; and "The Crimea and Transcaucasia," by J. Buchan Telfer, R. N. Of Oceanic explorations we notice Pearls of the Pacific," by J. W. Boddam-Whethan ; "The.South Pacific," by Rev. W. Wyatt Gill; "Discoveries and Surveys in New Guinea and the D'Entrecastereaux Islands," by Captain J. Moseby; and "Yachting in the Arctic Seas," by James Lamont. Coming nearer home: "Rambles and Studies in Greece," by J. P. Mahaffy; "Historical and Architectural Sketches, chiefly Italian," by E. A. Freeman; "The Balearic Islands," by Charles T. Bidwell; "Holidays in the Tyrol," by Walter White; "The Great Divide: Travels on the Upper Yellowstone," by the Earl of Dunraven; "German Home Life;" "Dutch Guiana," by W. G. Palgrave; and among circumnavigators, "Over the Sea and Far Away: Narrative of Wanderings round the World," by T. W. Hinchliff, President of the Alpine Club, are noticeabe.

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Prof. Jebb's "Attic Orators," deserve particular notice; as well as Mr. Leslie Stephen's second series of "Hours in a Library; " Mr. J. Ormsby's "Stray Papers," and Mr. Alexander Schmidt's "Shakespeare Lexicon; a Complete Dictionary of all the English Words, Phrases, and Constructions, in the Works of the Poet." A revised edition of "Chambers's Encyclopædia" has been published; and the ninth edition of the "Encyclopædia Britannica" is in process of publication.

LOCOMOTIVE, COMPRESSED-AIR. In boring a tunnel of any considerable length, removal of the rubbish has hitherto been found one of the most difficult parts of the work. The use of steam is out of the question, as it prevents effectual ventilation; while the employment of horses or mules to draw the trucks on which the débris is piled is attended with great expense, and the need of an extra supply of fresh air in the gallery. In the excavation of St. Gothard Tunnel, now going on, machines moved by compressed air have been recently introduced for dragging the trucks, and have proved a marked success. It is well known In Science and Philosophy, the most striking that compressed air is used to work the perfowork that has appeared is Mr. A. R. Wallace's rating machines for boring the tunnel; then, Geographical Distribution of Animals; an by the employment of compressed-air locomo"Introduction to Animal Morphology," by tives, ventilation of the galleries is secured, as Alexander Macalister; Lord Amberly's "Analy- these machines allow only pure air to escape; sis of Religious Belief," a work of personal in- such motors are also more powerful than horses, terest rather than of philosophical value; two and effect more rapidly the clearing away of other posthumous books: "Fragments on the débris. Ethical Subjects," by the late George Grote; "Thoughts on Art, Philosophy, and Religion, from the Unpublished Papers of Sydney Dobell;" Darwin's "Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants; " Prof. E. R. Lancaster's "History of Creation; " not to mention the numerous compilations intended to popularize science. Of original works in theological science the number is small. Dr. F. J. A. Hort's "Two Dissertations: 1. On MONOгENHE OЕO2 in Scripture and Tradi

H

tion. 2. On the Constan-
tinopolitan Creed and
other Eastern Creeds;"
an essay in reply to "Su-
pernatural Religion," en-
titled "The Gospels in
the Second Century,"
by W. Sanday; a piece
of recondite Biblical in-
vestigation, "The Miss-
ing Fragment of the
Latin Translation of the
Fourth Book of Esdras,"
by R. L. Bensley; Prin-
cipal Tulloch on "The
Christian Doctrine of Sin; the Bampton
Lectures of Bishop Alexander, on "The Wit-
ness of the Psalms to Christ and Christianity;"
and the remarkable "University Sermons of
Rev. J. B. Mozley, D. D., are among the chief.
MISCELLANEOUS. Of classical essays, Mr.
Gladstone's "Homeric Synchronism," and

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The first attempt to use compressed air for this purpose was made with two ordinary locomotives, one at each side of the tunnel; the boilers, in which, of course, there was no water, being filled with condensed air under a pressure of four atmospheres. This air played the part usually done by steam, passed into slide-valves, entered the cylinders alternately on each face of the pistons, which it set in motion, and then escaped into the atmosphere.

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being frequently filled. This led to adding to each locomotive a special reservoir for compressed air, which, mounted on trucks of its own, became a kind of tender, the air in the reservoir being conveyed by a tube to the distributing apparatus of the cylinders. The locomotive then worked as before, except that compressed air came from the reservoir instead of

from the boiler. Two locomotives were thus worked economically for about two years, in spite of the awkwardness of the long reservoirs that accompanied them. At departure the pressure in the reservoir was about seven kilogrammes per square centimetre; the locomotive having drawn a train of twelve loaded wagons along a course of about 600 metres,

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FIG. 2.-COMPRESSED-AIR LOCOMOTIVE USED AT THE ST. GOTHARD TUNNEL WORKS.

the pressure was found to fall to four and a half kilogramines; the train then returned empty to the point of departure, the final pressure being two and a half kilogrammes. But by this arrangement it was found to be impossible to suitably regulate the pressure of the air between the reservoir and the distribut

ing apparatus: to get over this difficulty M. Ribourt, the engineer of the tunnel, devised an arrangement which allows the compressed air to flow at a fixed pressure, whatever the pressure in the reservoir. The air in escaping from the reservoir enters a cylinder B (Fig. 1), over a certain extent of the walls of which

are openings m m, that communicate with another cylinder C, which surrounds it to the same extent, and which is connected with the slide-valve by which the air is distributed, or, more generally, with the space in which this air is to be utilized. On one side moves a piston E, which shuts the cylinder and hinders the escape of the air. This piston carries externally a shaft F, which supports externally a spiral spring H, the force of which is regulated by means of a screw. Internally it is connected by another shaft L with a second piston N, which bears a cylinder M, movable in the interior of the principal pump, and forming thus a sort of internal sheath. This sheath presents openings n n, which may coincide exactly with those already referred to, and in that case the air passes without difficulty from the reservoir at the point where it is to be employed. But if the sheath is displaced, the openings no longer correspond, there is resistance to the passage, and consequently diminution of the quantity of air which flows out, and hence lowering of pressure in the exterior cylinder. By making the position of the sheath to vary continuously we may make the pressure of exit constant, notwithstanding the continuous variation at entry. But the apparatus is automatic. In fact, the part of the cylinder B' comprised between the bottom and the piston N communicates by openings pp (which are never covered with the escapetube of the gas), in such a manner that upon its posterior face the piston N receives the pressure of the air at the moment when it flows, a pressure which it is sought to render constant. The piston E receives on its anterior face the action of the spring which can be regulated at pleasure. As to the other faces of the two pistons, they are subjected to equal actions proceeding from the pressure of the air at its entry, actions which thus counteract each other; so that the forces which determine the position of the movable system are, on the one hand, the tension of the spring, a constant and determined force, and, on the other hand, the pressure of the flowing air; and thus equilibrium cannot occur unless the two forces are equal. If the air should flow in too great a quantity, the pressure increases on the posterior face of the piston N, the spring is overcome, and the movable system advances a little toward the left; but then the orifices are partly covered and the flow diminishes. If the pressure then becomes too weak at the exit, the spring in its turn prevails, pushes the sheath toward the right, uncovers the orifices, and consequently a greater quantity of air may enter.

The machines which are now used at the St. Gothard Tunnel, genuine compressed-air locomotives, are furnished with M. Ribourt's apparatus. They consist of the following parts: A sheet-iron reservoir to contain the compressed air is mounted on a framework quite like that of steam-locomotives (Fig. 2), and

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carrying glasses, cylinders, distributing apparatus, etc. The tube for receiving the air carries, within reach of the driver, the automatic valve of M. Ribourt. The screw being easily regulated, the air can with certainty be made to issue from the apparatus at a determined pressThis air then passes into a small reservoir (about one-third metre cube), intended to deaden the shocks, which are always produced when the machine is set going or stopped. Lastly, this small reservoir communicates with the cylinders, and the air which reaches them acts in the same manner as steam in ordinary locomotives.

LONSDALE, HENRY LOWTHER, Earl of, born March 27, 1818; died August 15, 1876. He was educated at Westminster School and Trinity College, Cambridge, at which university he graduated M. A. in 1835. In 1841 he entered the army as cornet in the First LifeGuards, and retired from the service in 1854. He was Lord-Lieutenant and Custos Rotulorum of Cumberland and Westmoreland, and represented West Cumberland in the House of Commons from 1847 till his accession to the peerage in 1872. Lord Lonsdale was a keen sportsman, keeping a select racing-stud, like his predecessor, and for several years was master of the Cottesmore hounds. He was succeeded by his oldest son, St. George Henry, Viscount Lowther, born October 4, 1855.

LORQUET, LOUIS MICHAEL POLEMON, & Haytian general, born December 5, 1825; died in April, 1876, in defense of the government of President Dominigue. His father was a colonel in the army. After leaving school, Lorquet entered the ranks of the regiment, and soon after became secretary to General Inginac. After the Revolution of 1843, when President Boyer fled to Jamaica, young Lorquet attended him, and remained with him till 1845, when he returned to Hayti. He was appointed chief- clerk in the custom - house, but was removed by General Soulouque, and went to reside at Gonaives. In 1849, when Soulouque was proclaimed Emperor, under the title of Faustin I., through the influence of the Duke de Saint-Louis du Sud, Lorquet was appointed judge at Gonaives. On March 28, 1854, he was commissioned public prosecutor for Gonaives. In December, 1858, when the imperial throne was shaken, and Jeffrard became President, he appointed Lorquet ChiefJustice, Minister of Instruction, and temporary commander of the republican forces. On the 11th of November, 1865, he was made General of the Army, and in 1866 was aidede-camp of Salnave. Lorquet returned to Hayti from exile in Jamaica on the 8th of May, 1868, and took part in the Salnave revolution. On the 13th of May, 1871, he was appointed military commander of the capital city of Portau-Prince, by President Nissage Saget, which position he filled for several years. He was decorated with the Spanish Order of Isabel la Católica.

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