the usual justice courts of townships. The council is often composed of two bodies, a common and a select council.

The other city officials differ little except in name from the corresponding township officers. Instead of constable they have chief of police and policemen ; instead of supervisors they have street commissioners; they have auditors, assessors, collectors of taxes, and treasurers. Then they have special officers not needed in country communities, such as city solicitor, city superintendent of schools (elected by the school board), besides boards of health, fire commissioners, etc., usually appointed by the executive officer. For convenience of organization and government, cities are usually divided off into wards, and in large cities wards are divided into precincts. Other forms of taxation.-Cities have larger demands for funds than country communities, hence, besides bearing a proportional share of general burdens of taxation by the county, they have special forms of taxation, such as assessments for paving and sidewalks, usually laid on adjoining property. License fees are collected from those dealing in liquor. Gas and water companies usually pay the city for their privileges; street car companies usually pay for the use of the streets, etc. Some cities own and operate the gas, water, and electric plants, charging the citizens for the use of the same, which makes these sources of revenue, and helps to lighten the otherwise heavy burden of taxation.

PART III.

COUNTIES AND COUNTY AFFAIRS.

CHAPTER XIV.

HISTORICAL.

Origin of County.—In England, where we found the type from which most of our local divisions are derived, the territory governed by a count was called a county, hence the name. These divisions were often called shires, the chief officer of which was called shire-reeve or sheriff, from which we have the name of one of our own local county officers though the duties have been much changed. In the South the county is the local unit. In New England the county is made up of "towns," and was first established for judicial purposes. Its functions have been extended, however, until now it exercises many which formerly belonged to the town. In New York, Pennsylvania, and other States west, we find the best types of organization. Parish is the name given in Louisiana to this local area. "Where the township exists, usually the county takes no more than local administration of justice, maintenance of county buildings, equalization of taxes, granting of certain licenses, and partial supervision of highways."-Higby.

The New York form of township-county organization has been reproduced in many States farther west, as Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Nebraska. Under this form there is an executive board called the board of supervisors, composed of one supervisor from each township, who is at once a township and a county officer. They have the town meetings to legislate on certain matters, while the administrative county board, composed of township representatives, has general supervision. This system facilitates the shifting of business from one to the other as convenience may dictate.

In Pennsylvania the county was the first organized local unit; the Court of Quarter Sessions was the governing body, but the non-judicial business was taken out of the hands of the court and vested in a board of commissioners elected by the people of the county. Then the townships were organized for the purpose of choosing the local officers, some of whom we have seen act as agents for the county. In some places the townships care for the poor; in others the county maintains a poorhouse and farm, and takes charge of those who are so unfortunate as to need the help of their fellow-men in old age or misfortune and affliction. Here we have no town meeting with local legislative powers, this function being vested in the township board of supervisors.

Modified forms of this system are found in Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, and other States in this belt.

The Virginia type.-Before the Civil War the Vir

ginia type was found throughout the South, coextensive with slavery. These followed the model of the English shire Court of Quarter Sessions composed of justices originally appointed by the governor, but afterwards nominated by the court itself, making it virtually a corporation filling its own vacancies. Here, then, only State officers were chosen by the people. Since the war, county commissioners have been elected, taking non-judicial business from this court, and the townships are beginning to appear as the people demand closer local supervision.

The Mixed System, as shown in New York or Pennsylvania, seems to give the people the largest possible share in local government consistent with reasonable dispatch in the conduct of business.

CHAPTER XV.

COUNTY ELECTIONS.

County Elections.—It is a nearly uniform custom to hold the elections for county officers on the first Tuesday after the first Monday of November. In some States such elections are held each year, but in Pennsylvania every three years, so that the term of office of all county officers (except judges) is three years, and they take possession of their respective offices the first of January next succeeding their election. These elections are conducted by the

regularly elected local election officers in the same manner and subject to the same laws and regulations as township elections. The regular county officers so elected are: Judge, sheriff, coroner, prothonotary, clerk of courts, register of wills, recorder of deeds, district attorney, two jury commissioners (these are all closely related to the judicial side of our local government), three county commissioners (in some States called supervisors), three auditors, county surveyor, county treasurer, and county superintendent of schools. The governor appoints notaries public for three years, and the commissioners appoint their clerk and attorney, physician for the jail and poor, janitor for the courthouse, mercantile appraiser, and overseer of the poorhouse and farm.

CHAPTER XVI.

COUNTY COURTS.

President Judge is in some senses the highest and most important officer in the county. He is elected by the people and serves for ten years, at a salary ranging from $4,000 to $7,000 a year, varying according to the amount of business to be transacted. The judge is commissioned by the governor, and receives his pay also from the State treasury. At present in Pennsylvania, a judge is to be a man "learned in law." He presides over all the different kinds of county courts. In some States there are different