GEOGRAPHY.

By J. KING GOODRICH.

GENERAL NOTES.

The attention of the geographical world has been drawn away from the poles and centered upon the equatorial regions during the short period which has elapsed since the last report of the progress in geography was written. As a summary of the work done, the address of the Marquis of Lorne, president of the Royal Geographical Society of Great Britain, at the opening of the session of 1885-'86, may be very properly alluded to at this point and commended as a careful and satisfactory epitome of what is of most interest.

While lacking much of the harrowing element that was so distressingly conspicuous in the records of the "Jeannette" and Greely Arctic expeditions, and which appealed so strongly to our sympathy, the current record is by no means wanting in evidences of danger and disaster. The Aberdeen meeting of the Geography Section of the British Association commenced on the 9th of September. The leading feature of this year's meeting was the prominence given to Indian subjects. Out of a total of thirty-four papers read, as many as eleven referred to the geography of India and the regions immediately adjoining it. Geographical education attracted much attention, and the report of Mr. Keltie upon this subject elicited prolonged discussion. The importance of this branch of education is becoming more marked every day; communications on the subject have frequently appeared in the leading journals, which devote columns specially to geography. In order to test the condition of education in Denmark, the Government decided at the beginning of the year to have a test examination among the recruits of the army and navy, on the Belgian principle. The result of this examination appears to have been very discreditable to education in Denmark, and particularly to that in geography. One of the examiners, the Rev. J. L. Bang, of Langaa, has given some particulars of the results, from which we quote: "The regiment selected was the Life Guards, the crack regiment of the Danish army, the recruits (282 in number) being drawn from every part of the country. Questions such as how many ells (the Danish measure) go to a mile, and the size of an acre of

land, were answered by a very few only. But as regards geography the answers were far worse. In answer to the question, 'What is the capital of Sweden?' Paris, Trondhjem, St. Petersburg, Amsterdam, London, Madrid, Copenhagen, and even Constantinople were given." It is by no means certain that a similar examination in this country would develop results very much more satisfactory.

Dr. Richard Lehmann, professor of geography in Munster University, has issued the first part of a work, which will extend to about 400 pages, on apparatus and methods in geographical teaching. Dr. Lehmann has given much attention to the subject of geographical education, and has himself, as teacher and Privatdocent in Halle, had great experience in teaching the subject, so that his work when completed is sure to prove of real service.

An exhibition of maps, atlases, reliefs, globes, and other apparatus used in geographical education, collected from the principal establishments and institutions in England and on the continent of Europe, was opened in London on the 9th of December, 1885, by the president of the Royal Geographical Society, the Marquis of Lorne, and will continue to the 31st of January, 1886. The programme includes lectures and discussions, and the attendance and interest confirm the judgment of the promoters of the scheme.

The geographical subject proposed this year by the French Academy of Inscriptions for the Prix Bordin is "A critical examination of the geography of Strabo." According to the terms laid down by the Academy, competitors are (1) to give the history of the text of the work; (2) to characterize the language of Strabo with reference to that of contemporary Greek writers, such as Diodorus Siculus, and Dionysius of Halicarnassus; (3) to distinguish the information collected by direct observation of places and that drawn by him from his predecessors; (4) to express definite conclusions on his critical method in using various documents. The papers should be in the hands of the secretary of the institute not later than December 31, 1886.

It was stated in the early part of the year that the King of the Belgians was conferring with M. Martinie, president of the French Geographical Society, on the subject of the formation of an International Geographical Society. Though nothing definite seems to have come of this conference, it is to be hoped that such a society will be formed. One of the best arguments in its favor is that through its instrumentality combined action could be had on the system of orthography for native names of places. Taking into consideration the present want of such a system, and the consequent confusion and variety that exist in the mode of spelling in English maps, the council of the Royal Geographical Society has adopted the following rules for such geographical names as are not (in the countries to which they belong) written in the Roman character. The rules are identical with those adopted for the

Admiralty charts, and will henceforth be used in all publications of the society.

1. No change will be made in the orthography of foreign names in countries which use Roman letters: thus Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, &c., names will be spelt as by the respective nations.

2. Neither will any change be made in the spelling of such names in languages which are not written in Roman character as have become by long usage familiar to English readers; thus Calcutta, Cutch, Celebes, Mecca, &c., will be retained in their present form.

3. The true sound of the word as locally pronounced will be taken as the basis of the spelling.

4. An approximation, however, to the sound is alone aimed at. A system which would attempt to represent the more delicate inflections of sound and accent would be so complicated as only to defeat itself. Those who desire a more accurate pronunciation of the written name must learn it on the spot by a study of local accent and peculiarities. 5. The broad features of the system are that vowels are pronounced as in Italian, and consonants as in English.

6. One accent only is used, the acute, to denote the syllable on which stress is laid. This is very important, as the sounds of many names are entirely altered by the misplacement of this stress.

7. Every letter is pronounced. When two vowels come together each one is sounded, though the result when spoken quickly is sometimes scarcely to be distinguished from a single sound, as in ai, au, ei.

8. [East] Indian names are accepted as spelt in Hunter's Gazetteer. On the 11th of September occurred the centenary of the foundation of the well-known geographical establishment of Justus Perthes, of Gotha. The committee of the Geography Section of the British Association, which was in session at Aberdeen at the time, sent a telegram of hearty congratulation and good wishes for the future to the head of the establishment. All the professors of geography at the German universities united in presenting to the firm a beautifully illuminated address, expressing their sense of the services rendered to geography by the firm during its long career. A handsome quarto volume has also been issued from Gotha for private circulation, giving a very interesting sketch of the progress of the establishment under its various heads, brief biographies of the famous cartographers connected with it, and notes on the various great works in geography which it has produced. The work contains numerous portraits both of the partners and cartographers of the past. The founder of the firm was Johann Georg Justus Perthes, who was born at Rudolstadt, September 11, 1749, his father being physician to the Prince of Rudolstadt. When the firm was first established in Gotha in 1785, its publications were of a general character. In 1809 the great HandAtlas über alle bekannte Länder des Erdbodens, by Professor Heusinger, of Dresden, was published, with twenty-four maps in copper plate. Under the second chief of the firm, Wilhelm Perthes, 1816-'53, the H. Mis. 15-35

land, were answered by a very few only. But as regards geography the answers were far worse. In answer to the question, 'What is the capital of Sweden?' Paris, Trondhjem, St. Petersburg, Amsterdam, London, Madrid, Copenhagen, and even Constantinople were given." It is by no means certain that a similar examination in this country would develop results very much more satisfactory.

Dr. Richard Lehmann, professor of geography in Munster University, has issued the first part of a work, which will extend to about 400 pages, on apparatus and methods in geographical teaching. Dr. Lehmann has given much attention to the subject of geographical education, and has himself, as teacher and Privatdocent in Halle, had great experience in teaching the subject, so that his work when completed is sure to prove of real service.

An exhibition of maps, atlases, reliefs, globes, and other apparatus used in geographical education, collected from the principal establishments and institutions in England and on the continent of Europe, was opened in London on the 9th of December, 1885, by the president of the Royal Geographical Society, the Marquis of Lorne, and will continue to the 31st of January, 1886. The programme includes lectures and discussions, and the attendance and interest confirm the judgment of the promoters of the scheme.

The geographical subject proposed this year by the French Academy of Inscriptions for the Prix Bordin is "A critical examination of the geography of Strabo." According to the terms laid down by the Academy, competitors are (1) to give the history of the text of the work; (2) to characterize the language of Strabo with reference to that of contemporary Greek writers, such as Diodorus Siculus, and Dionysius of Halicarnassus; (3) to distinguish the information collected by direct observation of places and that drawn by him from his predecessors; (4) to express definite conclusions on his critical method in using various documents. The papers should be in the hands of the secretary of the institute not later than December 31, 1886.

It was stated in the early part of the year that the King of the Belgians was conferring with M. Martinie, president of the French Geographical Society, on the subject of the formation of an International Geographical Society. Though nothing definite seems to have come of this conference, it is to be hoped that such a society will be formed. One of the best arguments in its favor is that through its instrumentality combined action could be had on the system of orthography for native names of places. Taking into consideration the present want of such a system, and the consequent confusion and variety that exist in the mode of spelling in English maps, the council of the Royal Geographical Society has adopted the following rules for such geographical names as are not (in the countries to which they belong) written in the Roman character. The rules are identical with those adopted for the

Imiralty charts, and will henceforth be used in all publications of the ciety.

1. No change will be made in the orthography of foreign names in untries which use Roman letters: thus Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, c., names will be spelt as by the respective nations.

2. Neither will any change be made in the spelling of such names in nguages which are not written in Roman character as have become long usage familiar to English readers; thus Calcutta, Cutch, Celees, Mecca, &c., will be retained in their present form.

3. The true sound of the word as locally pronounced will be taken as ne basis of the spelling.

4. An approximation, however, to the sound is alone aimed at. A ystem which would attempt to represent the more delicate inflections f sound and accent would be so complicated as only to defeat itself. hose who desire a more accurate pronunciation of the written name ust learn it on the spot by a study of local accent and peculiarities. 5. The broad features of the system are that vowels are pronounced s in Italian, and consonants as in English.

6. One accent only is used, the acute, to denote the syllable on which tress is laid. This is very important, as the sounds of many names are entirely altered by the misplacement of this stress.

7. Every letter is pronounced. When two vowels come together each one is sounded, though the result when spoken quickly is sometimes scarcely to be distinguished from a single sound, as in ai, au, ei.

8. [East] Indian names are accepted as spelt in Hunter's Gazetteer. On the 11th of September occurred the centenary of the foundation of the well-known geographical establishment of Justus Perthes, of Gotha. The committee of the Geography Section of the British Association, which was in session at Aberdeen at the time, sent a telegram of hearty congratulation and good wishes for the future to the head of the establishment. All the professors of geography at the German universities united in presenting to the firm a beautifully illuminated address, expressing their sense of the services rendered to geography by the firm during its long career. A handsome quarto volume has also been issued from Gotha for private circulation, giving a very interesting sketch of the progress of the establishment under its various heads, brief biographies of the famous cartographers connected with it, and notes on the various great works in geography which it has produced. The work contains numerous portraits both of the partners and cartographers of the past. The founder of the firm was Johann Georg Justus Perthes, who was born at Rudolstadt, September 11, 1749, his father being physician to the Prince of Rudolstadt. When the firm was first established in Gotha in 1785, its publications were of a general character. In 1809 the great HandAtlas über alle bekannte Länder des Erdbodens, by Professor Heusinger, of Dresden, was published, with twenty-four maps in copper plate. Under the second chief of the firm, Wilhelm Perthes, 1816-53, the H. Mis. 15-35