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QUESTIONS

1. Where is the scene laid as the story opens?

2. To what other place is it at once transferred, and how? 3. What previous references to Bethlehem are there in the Old Testament? (Consult a concordance.)

4. At what time of the year did Naomi and Ruth reach Bethlehem?

5. How were they received? What evidences are there that Naomi's family was one of prominence in the community?

6. Bring out the most important characteristics of the three leading characters of the story.

7. What religious conceptions are revealed that seem strange to us?

8. Mention the unusual customs referred to in the book. Commit to memory 1. 16, 17.

LESSON XLIX

THE COMPLETED PENTATEUCH

THE Hebrew Bible contains three groups of books known to Judaism as "The Law," "The Prophets," and "The Writings." These three divisions correspond with the three stages in the formation of the Old Testament Canon.1 "The Law," Genesis to Deuteronomy, was canonized, or received as sacred scripture, about B. C. 400. These five books are known as the “Pentateuch" (meaning "fivefold book"). To the Pentateuch was added not later than B. C. 200 the collection known as "The Prophets," composed of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve so-called minor prophets. The third canon, “The Writings," was not completed until the first century A. D., and includes Ruth, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentations, and Daniel.

In the minds of the Jews their scriptural books possessed two degrees of authority. Above all others in sacredness were the five books of the Pentateuch, because they were believed to have been written by Moses, the founder of their religion. Gradually, however, they came to ascribe sacredness to the works of the prophets. They finally admitted to their Bible all those works which they believed to have been written by inspired men.

We have had glimpses of the Pentateuchal books in

1 Canon, literally, "measuring rod, or rule." A canon is the list of books accepted as comprising any sacred collection of writings.

the making ever since we began our study. About B. C. 400 the Pentateuch was put into circulation; that is, copies were made for various synagogues.

The "J" document. The "J" document is the oldest writing in the Pentateuch, as has been said. Remember that there is only internal evidence for the date or authorship of any of these documents. "J" was written by a prophet (or prophets) of Judah, between B. C. 950 and 850. There are many data that point to the conclusions at which scholars have arrived, a few of which are these: The document must have been written in Judah, for the interest all centers about places in the southern kingdom, and its heroes belong to the southern tribes. It is thought to have been written by prophets, for the chief interest of the prophets always was morality, while that of the priests was ritual and the temple service. It cannot be earlier than the time of Solomon, for it presupposes a settled agricultural life and a land entirely in the control of the Hebrews. The religious conceptions point to a time a little later than Solomon. The remarkable literary skill of "J" shows that the Israelites were acquainted with the art of composition. After the conquest of Canaan was complete there were peace, more or less leisure on the part of the higher classes, and other conditions favorable to the development of literature.

The purpose of "J" is wholly ethical and religious. He tries to solve such problems as those arising from sin, sickness, and death. His style is vivid and picturesque, with intense human interest. As a storyteller he is unsurpassed. A hatred of evil, a passion for righteousness, and an attempt to grapple with moral problems are characteristic of this early docu

ment.

No other race ever produced anything at all comparable with it. Some one has said that from it "a spring bubbles up from which humanity will always be able to draw the strength of youth for its religious life.”

The "E" document.-It must have been written in the northern kingdom, for its interest is chiefly in the northern sanctuaries and northern heroes. It was written by prophets, and though scholars are not agreed, most of them believe it to be about one hundred years later than "J." There is in it an advance in moral and spiritual conceptions which can hardly be accounted for except by a considerable lapse in time. When God wishes to communicate with mortals he sends an angel or a dream, instead of appearing in human form, as in "J." The moral sense is finer than in "J." For example, Abraham's treatment of Hagar is much kinder in "E," and in it Joseph's brothers are less cruel to him than in the older narrative. The denunciation of strange gods in "E" points to a date not far from that of Amos, that is, about B. C. 750.

"J" and "E" were combined into one at some time before 621, as their union is presupposed in the book of Deuteronomy.

Deuteronomy and "JE." In course of time writers under the influence of Deuteronomy combined that code with "JE," and their work is known as "JED." The Deuteronomic point of view has been explained but should be reviewed here. Suffice it to say that according to that book the temple at Jerusalem is the only place where Jehovah may be legitimately worshiped. Therefore all who worshiped at other places (after the temple was built) are condemned, even though they lived before the Deuteronomic legislation was ever heard of.

The priestly element in the Pentateuch (or "P"). -Once more, about B. C. 500, a new version of history was made, by a school of priests, hence their work is called "P." From a literary standpoint "P" is less interesting than "J" or "E," more grave and formal, less human. Great emphasis is placed upon institutions and their origin, and the priesthood and temple ritual are given a predominant place. The writers conceived that they had had such a place from the time of Moses. To "P" is due the elaborate description of the tabernacle in the wilderness, which we have found to be in conflict with the earlier data.

There is one chapter in which "P" rises to a height hardly surpassed in the Old Testament. It is the matchless story of Creation in the first chapter of Genesis. The conception of God is very high. "P" could not have represented Deity as walking on the earth, talking to Adam and Eve, and partaking of food in Abraham's tent, as does "J." He is now thought of as above and apart from the earth, sending forth his edicts. "Let there be light: and there was light."

The "P" code comprises the concluding chapters of Exodus, the whole of Leviticus, and certain other portions of the Pentateuch. Its purpose was to make of the Jews a separate people, devoted to Jehovah and scrupulously keeping the Law. Of course they are forbidden to intermarry with the Gentiles; moreover, they must not eat with them nor have any kind of social intercourse with them. That these laws may be more effective, certain regulations regarding clean and unclean food must be observed. Such ritual enactments fostered the growth of the formalism and hypocrisy which were so severely condemned by Jesus. "Woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites!

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