Carry on. -To spread the utmost extent of canvas possible, as a yacht may do in racing. But the term is usually understood to mean that she is crowding it on at a risk.

Carvel. A method of boat building in which the strakes are flush one with another and present a smooth surface. (See BUILD.) Case. The outer layer of planking on a boat. This name, however, only exists where there is a double layer, as in diagonally built craft. The inner layer is then called the case, and that outside it the skin. Cast.-Casting off a boat's head is to pay it off when she has come on the proper tack.

To cast anchor.-To let go anchor. (See ANCHOR.)
Cast away.-Lost.

Castor and Pollux.

"The name given to an electric meteor which sometimes appears at sea, attached to the extremities of the masts of ships under the form of balls of fire. When one light only is seen, it is called Helena. The meteor is generally supposed to indicate the cessation of a storm or a future calm; but Helena, or one ball only, to portend bad weather." (Brande and Cox.)

are

Cat. A name at one time given to a ship of peculiar build, and used, commonly, in the coal trade. Falconer describes its form as founded upon the Norwegian model, having a narrow stern, projecting quarters, and deep waist. "These vessels," he says, 66 generally built remarkably strong, and carry from four to six hundred tons; or, in the language of their own mariners, from twenty to thirty keels of coal. Vessels answering tolerably well to such a description may still be seen in the North Sea.

The cat, on shipboard, is that part which has to do with the anchor and weighing it. Thus we have the cathead, a timber projecting from the bow, to which the anchor is secured.

Cat block, a block which is attached to the anchor when it reaches the cat-heads.

Cat hook, the hook by which the cat block is attached.

Cat fall, the rope, passing through the cat block, by which the anchor is hauled inwards, and all of these constitute the cat tackle. Cat holes, in the stern of a ship, are holes through which a cable passes when it may be necessary to heave the ship astern.

Cat harpings, in the rigging of a ship, are ropes used to draw in the shrouds of masts or bowsprits that they may not interfere with the yards, etc.

Cat rig, with sailing boats, etc., is a rig of one sail, the peculiarity of which consists in the manner in which the sail is hoisted. The mast is stepped very far forward, and a yard considerably longer than the mast runs along it, carrying a sail which is supposed to represent both the main and top-sail of other rigs. It is claimed for the cat-rig that it possesses great advantages in reefing. An improvement on it, consisting chiefly in the introduction of a reefing boom, was brought in by a Mr. Forbes, of America, some years ago; the description of this improved rig is quoted in Mr. Davies'" Boat Sailing for Amateurs.

Cat's 's paw.-1. A name sometimes given to a light wind which sweeps gently over the surface of the sea in a calm, and then dies away. It is seen coming from a distance, and often in a triangular form. 2. Of a rope.-A peculiar turn given to a rope in order to hook a tackle to it is also called a cat's paw.

Catamaran.-A species of sailing raft used in the Indies. Its motions are controlled by two drop-boards let down, one from the fore part, the other astern, through the raft, and by means of these it may not only be steered to a nicety, but made to sail on the wind, tack and turn, just in the same manner as a boat. This raft is described in a most interesting manner by Captain Basil Hall in the "Lieutenant and Commander."

Catch (in rowing).—The grip (the more proper term) which an oar gets of the water at the commencement of a stroke. It should be firm and continuous, taken quickly, but without excitement; and there is no doubt that thus performed it produces great speed. Catching a crab.-The art is described under the word CRAB.

Caulking. The operation performed upon wooden vessels to prevent leakage, and assist in fixing the whole frame of the hull. It consists of stuffing the seams (the spaces between the planks) with oakum, and then paying them with hot pitch.

Cavil. (See CLEAT.)

Centre-board, centre-keel or drop keel. A heavy, movable plate of iron, lead, or timber let down below the keel of a sailing boat, about midships. It serves a two-fold purpose, acting at once as a lee-board-enabling the boat to carry more sail than she otherwise could-and as a lifting keel which, in case of her running aground, can be raised immediately, thereby reducing the draught of the boat and enabling her to float again. In running before the wind a centre-board is raised, so that as small a resistance as possible may be presented to the water; in sailing close hauled it is let down to its fullest and according to the spread of canvas carried and the direction of the wind, its depth between these extremes may be varied.

But the accumulation of all the weight and depth of a keel into one place may be carried to excess; and should the movable keel be made heavier than a light hull can well bear, its tendency is to render the boat too stiff, and thereby to destroy its buoyancy. The

best material of which the plate can be made under these circumstances would seem to be wood; and to render it heavy it may be weighted at the bottom. There are various forms of centre-board. The most simple is a plain plate, dropped evenly down; but being very apt to jam it is not much used. It is, however, in many respects, the best. But the favourite arrangement is the board which swings on a pivot, and of this there are many patterns, of which some, almost semi-circular in shape, are called cheesecutters. In another form one board works inside another, opening like a fan, so that the depth of keel can be better calculated. This, though apparently good in principle, is not much used except for canoes. The exact position of a centre-board is of great moment; it depends upon the shape of the boat, the use to which she is to be put, and the sail area. For sea boats a great depth of centre-keel is not found to answer, while on smooth waters it may be considerable. In all measurements for racing, the board is let down to its fullest extent. For boats intended to be beached, the centre-board is peculiarly well suited; but it is not on this account to be concluded that the invention has its origin in beached boats, since, long before it ever came into general use, it was habitually employed in boats which were never hauled up on land. In one form or another, indeed, whether as lee-board or centre-board, it may be said to date from time immemorial.

Centre of buoyancy.-The centre of gravity of the water displaced by any vessel.

Chafe. To rub or wear away by rubbing.

Chaffer.-Spoken of a head sail, and more particularly of a jib, when it keeps shivering.

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Chain.-Chain is becoming more used in shipping every year, and is now, therefore, made in a variety of shapes and sizes. The principle upon which the manufacture is founded may be quoted, thus:- Much depends upon the shape of links in order to obtain the greatest resistance of a chain; and as long as the strain is kept in the direction of the axis, the strongest form will be obtained when the sides of the chain are parallel to the line of strain. But as this is often in a direction perpendicular to the axis, it is essential to introduce a stay which should maintain the sides invariably in their position, and to resist any unequal compression of the metal in the sides." The stay here spoken of is often seen in cables, and constitutes that which is known as the stud link"; it is wrought or cast in various patterns.

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The most common chains in use (see fig.) are: round or end link; close-link; open-link; stud-link; curb. Round-linked chains are not used for nautical purposes, but a circular link usually occurs in cables, at the end of every chain length, and is therefore called an end-ring. Open-link is the pattern most frequently employed for all general purposes, both at sea and ashore, being the most

generally serviceable and the least expensive: cables of small craft are of this pattern. Stud-link is found in the cables of large vessels, for reasons above quoted. Curb chain is somewhat rare, being expensive; it is powerful, and when twisted becomes quite rigid.

A chain length is 12 fathoms. A cable length is the tenth of a nautical mile; approximately 100 fathoms. The thickness of a chain is measured by the thickness of the bar of which it is made. 66 A chain of which the section is one inch in diameter breaks with 16 tons; such a chain is equivalent to a 10in. hempen cable nearly. And the dimensions of the chain cable corresponding to any hemp cable are therefore easily found by nearly dividing the circumference of the hemp cable by 10." The formula for the safe load of a chain in tons has been thus given :

Where W=the safe load, and D=the diameter expressed in ths of an inch, the weight of chain in lbs. per fathom=85D2. "In order that the ship may be enabled to let slip her cable in case of necessity, chain cables are furnished with bolts at distances from each other of a fathom or two, which can be readily withdrawn."

Chain-locker.-The hold in the fore part of a boat into which the anchor chain descends.

Chains or channel plates.-Iron bars or plates on a vessel's sides, running upwards, and receiving the deadeyes by which the shrouds are held down. In large vessels the channel plates are kept down by strong chains, hence the name. Where the vessel has channels the chains are kept away from the bulwarks by them, but in smaller craft the channels are dispensed with and the plates simply run up the sides somewhat higher than the gunwales. In such craft these plates are frequently called the channels. (See CHANNELS.)

This

Chain bolts.-"Those bolts which are driven through the upper end of the preventer plates and the toe link of the chains." has reference to large vessels of the old type, when the chain (or channel) plates were held down by iron chains from beneath.

Chamfer.—To take the edge off or bevel a plank, which is then said to have chamfered edges.

any

Changing rigging end for end. This consists in turning such ropes as may be chafing in one place, end for end, so as to bring all parts into equal wear. Rigging changed thus will naturally last longer than when allowed to wear bare without

turning; but the ropes in small boats are so short that the practice is not much followed.

Channels (chain wales-i.e., the wales upon which certain chains are fixed). In ships these are wooden platforms projecting from the hull on each side of each mast; their office is to keep the chains and channel plates away from the sides. These channel plates or chain plates are flat bars of iron running in an upward direction from beneath the channels, and taking the deadeyes by which the

shrouds of the masts are held down. In smaller craft and in many modern vessels the channels proper disappear, the plates remaining in their place; while in sailing boats even these plates are dispensed with, and both channels and plates may become little more than eye-bolts. The name channels is still retained, however, so that as far as amateur sailing is concerned, channels may almost be described as those points on the sides of a boat to which the bases of the shrouds are attached. When the channels project to any great extent, as is sometimes the case in very narrow boats, they may be called outrigged channels. Many barges are without channel plates, because the lee-boards come in the way of them.

Chappelling.-Chappelling a ship is "the act of turning her round in a light breeze of wind when she is close-hauled, so that she will lie the same way she did before. This is commonly occasioned by the negligence of the steersman, or by a sudden change of the wind." (Falconer.)

Charring.-Burning the external surface of wood. It is a valuable process for the preservation of piles or any timbers which may be subjected to alternate exposure to the air and submersion in The water line of all piles is, as is well known, the part most liable to decay; charring is found to some extent to delay this decay.

water.