records, 160 acres of the $1.25 land, or 80 acres of the $2.50 land, after five years of occupancy. Pre-emption.-Any head of a family or citizen over twenty-one years of age may settle upon any unclaimed quarter section, and secure prior right of purchase by complying with certain conditions. Timber Culture.-To encourage the growing of timber on public lands, an act was passed in 1873, whereby any settler who has cultivated for two years as much as five acres of trees to an 80 acre tract open to homestead, or ten acres to 160 acres, may at the end of eight years obtain a patent, if a certain percentage of the trees are then living. More than one quarter section may be secured by one person under the timber culture act, but the tracts cannot be contiguous. Land Warrants.-These were given mostly for military service under acis of congress; but few entries are now made on them, because they have been largely used or absorbed. Purchase.-Lands which have not been reserved for some purpose may be purchased for cash by any one wishing them. HOW SLAVERY WAS ABOLISHED IN THE SEVERAL STATES. The slave trade was prohibited by congress in 1808. From that time on it was a felony to bring slaves into the United States. Slavery never legally existed in the states carved out of the Northwest Territory. It was forbidden by the ordinance of 1787. Vermont abolished it in forming her state constitution in 1777.* Massachusetts, by constitution, 1780. Pennsylvania, gradual abolition by statute, began in 1780; had 64 in 1840. New Hampshire, by constitution, 1783. Rhode Island and Connecticut, gradual abolition, 1784. New Jersey began in 1804, but had 18 in 1860. By the Missouri compromise, 1820, slavery ceased "in all that territory ceded by France to the United States, under the name of Louisiana, which lies north of 36 degrees and 30 min* Before her admission into the Union. utes north latitude,"* except Missouri. This part of the act was, in the Dred Scott case, declared by the supreme court to be invalid, still a provision forbidding slavery found its way into the constitution of each of the states afterward seeking admission. By the emancipation proclamation, Jan. 1, 1863, the slaves of those in arms against the United States were declared free. The thirteenth amendment, adopted 1865, abolished slavery in all parts of the United States. HOW VOTING IS DONE IN LEGISLATIVE BODIES.† Acclamation.-The most common way of voting on ordinary questions is by acclamation; that is, when a question is put those in favor of it say "aye," and then those opposed say "no." In this case, a majority of those voting prevails. This is sometimes called voting viva voce. Division. If the presiding officer is uncertain as to which side is in the majority, he may call for a division, or this may be demanded by any member. Then those voting in the affirmative stand and are counted, after which those voting in the negative do similarly. Yea and Nay.-On important questions in congress, or on any question by demand of one-fifth of the members, the vote is by "yeas and nays" that is, the roll is called, and each member responds "yea" or "n y." In some states, including Minnesota, all bills must be voted on in this way, and must receive a majority of the total membership in order to pass. HOW WS ARE MADE. Framing a Bill.—A bil. is a proposed law. The framing or drawing up of a bili may be done by any person. For instance, a citizen desiring legislation on any matter may formulate a bill for consideration by the legislature. But many requests for legislation come in the form of petitions, in which case the member to whom the matter is committed by the petitioners usually frames the bill. Many bills originate in committee, some of them as substitutes. Bringing in.-At the time set in the daily order of business for introducing bills, the member announces his bill by *Thomas amendment to act for admitting Missouri. † See also Among the Lawmakers, pp. 168-70. title, which should indicate the matter considered therein, and sends it to the clerk's desk. First Reading.—No bill can pass without at least three readings. When a bill is first presented, the clerk reads it at the table, and hands it to the speaker, who, rising, states to the house the title of the bill, and that this is the first reading of it. Commitment.-Unless objection is made, the bill, if not one which has beer formulated by a committee, is then referred for carefulcnsideration to a committee, standing or special. The numb of subjects coming before a legislative body is too great t permit the initial consideration of each by the whole bod It is a note-worthy fact that our lawmaking is virtually committee legislation. All bills for appropriating money shall before passage be referred to the finance committe. Second Reading.-When reported favorably by the committee, with amendments, such amendments must be read in full, and if they are adopted the bill passes to its second reading, which is by title only. If the bill is of a general nature, it is printed and placed on the General Orders or list of bills ready for committee of the whole. Committee of the Whole.-This consists of the entire membership of the house. Its work is to perfect bills before they come up for final passage. To this end great freedom of debate is permitted. This is the last opportunity to offer amendments, except by unanimous consent. When the house resolves itself into committee, the regular presiding officer leaves the chair after designating a member to act as chairman. When the committee rises, the presiding officer resumes the chair and the chairman of the committee reports its action. Bills reported favorably are engrossed, that is, rewritten neatly as amended, and are placed on the Calendar, or list of bills ready for third reading. Third Reading.-This is in full, and the question is on the passage of the bill. If passed the bill is sent to the other house, with the announcement that it has passed the first house. Action in other House.-The bill is treated in the other house as in the first. If passed, it is returned similarly to the house in which it originated. If passed with amendments, these are considered. Enrollment.—When it has passed both houses, the bill is plainly and accurately written on parchment, under supervision of the committee on enrolled bills. Signing.—The enrolled bill is signed by the presiding officer of each house, and, if he approves it, by the executive. Disposition.-The bill is then carried by the executive to the secretary of state, who deposits it among the archives. Copies are made for publication.* D. SOME PRINCIPLES OF INTERNATIONAL ᏞᎪᎳ. Nature and Origin.—A savage meeting in the forest a person whom he has never seen before is apt to look upon him as a foe. As civilization increases, danger to one's personal rights decreases, and stranger ceases to mean enemy. It has gradually come about that the confidence and courtesy shown to one another by men in their individual relations have extended to the relations of states. Morality, reason, and custom have established among the nations certain rules of conduct with respect to one another. The rules constitute what is called international law. As might be guessed, international law is a matter of comparatively recent origin, and exists only among the most highly civilized nations. Not being the enactment of any general legislative body, having no courts competent to pass upon it nor executive to enforce its provisions, this law must be framed by agreement, and its carying out must rest upon national good faith. PEACE RELATIONS. The great purpose of international law being to preserve peace by removing the causes of war, we shall first consider some of the arrangements operative in times of peace. Non-interference.—Among individuals it is found that, as a rule, it is best for each person to mind his own business. Similarly, among nations non-interference by one with the internal affairs of another is a cardinal principle. *Read Among the Lawmakers, pp. 60-64. It is, therefore, a general rule that a people may adopt such form of government as they choose, and that whenever they wish they may amend or entirely alter it.* And the government formed has a right to operate without dictation from other powers. Nor has any foreign nation a right to inquire how the government has come into being; sufficient that it is the government. This right of a nation to manage its own affairs is called sovereignty. It belongs to a small independent nation as completely as to a large one. The act of one government in acknowledging the validity and sovereignty of another is called recognizing it. (See page 349, last paragraph.) It is sometimes a delicate question to determine whether to recognize a community as a nation or not. Thus, if a dependency is seeking to become independent, our personal sympathies are naturally with it, and yet it might be contrary to the law of nations, an "unfriendly act" to the sovereign power, for our government to recognize its independence. During the struggle of the Spanish-American colonies for separate political existence, John Quincy Adams, then (1822) secretary of state, formulated the proper rule of action thus: "In every question relating to the independence of a nation two principles are involved, one of right and the other of fact, the former exclusively depending upon the determination of the nation itself, and the latter resulting from the successful execution of that determination. * * * The government of the United States yielded to an obligation of duty of the highest order by recognizing as independent states nations which, after deliberately asserting their right to that character, have maintained and established it against all the resistance which had been or could be brought to oppose it. This recognition is the mere acknowledgment of existing facts." * * * Although sovereignty implies the right of a government to enter freely into such relations with any other nation as may be mutually agreeable, the nations of Europe feel at liberty in self-defense to interfere with any arrangements that threaten the "balance of power." Thus France would feel justified in opposing a very close alliance between Prussia and Spain. * A change in the form of government does not release the nation from prior obligations. † Wharton's International Law Digest, Volume I., page 162. |